Search Results (372)

Courtyard-cluster layouts are common in rural public buildings in hot-humid regions, but their open-space types remain poorly quantified. We assessed a completed elderly-care center in Shaoguan, South China, using steady-state RANS CFD (simpleFoam, standard k–ε, OpenFOAM 8), porous-media vegetation, Solar Cal-based mean radiant temperature (MRT), and pedestrian-level Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI). Published component-level validation was used to assess toolchain reliability. Simulations represented peak heat stress at noon on 24 July (air temperature 30.3 °C, relative humidity 69%, southwesterly wind 2.9 m/s). Relative to an unobstructed reference (MRT 60.1 °C; UTCI 40.0 °C), architectural open spaces reduced mean MRT by 21.2 °C (35%) and UTCI by 5.3 °C (13%). Covered, laterally open grey spaces were coolest (mean MRT 34.63 °C; UTCI 33.61 °C), whereas open courtyards were warmer (41.79 °C; 35.34 °C) but 18% better ventilated (0.87 versus 0.74 m/s) and served as ventilation nodes. With uniform air temperature and humidity, UTCI variation was strongly associated with MRT (R = 0.989) and weakly with wind speed (R = −0.182). These scenario-bounded results support a shade-first strategy in which courtyards supply ventilation to adjacent covered spaces. Full article

Optimizing outdoor thermal environments is essential for sustainable urban development and spatial resilience. Existing urban microclimate studies generally adopt the 1.5 m pedestrian height to represent outdoor thermal conditions. However, this widely accepted assumption has not been verified in multi-level campus spaces with terrace-induced complex three-dimensional environments, particularly in severe cold climate zones. This study investigates vertical thermal stratification and the relative influences of orientation, surface material, and height in Changchun, China. Field measurements at four levels were integrated with ENVI-met simulations calibrated against six independent validation sites. During summer peak hours, orientation dominates the thermal regime, outweighing both material and height. The peak thermal load shifts vertically from the south at lower elevations to the west at upper levels, generating a maximum air temperature difference of 1.66 °C compared to the consistently coolest east-facing terraces at 14:00. The vertical temperature profile does not follow a simple trend but varies with the surrounding geometry. Mid-level thermal trap appears near 3.5 m in the semi-enclosed building, where air temperature peaks before declining toward the roof. Moreover, an idealized model shows monotonic cooling with height, confirming that local obstructions cause the observed heat accumulation. During summer peak hours, surface material exerts a highly limited direct effect on ambient air temperature within these well-mixed three-dimensional spaces. Differences among concrete, asphalt, wood, and turf stay below 0.1 °C, roughly two orders of magnitude smaller than the orientation-driven contrast, because turbulent mixing and façade radiation overwhelm local surface heat fluxes. The findings highlight the inadequacy of evaluating thermal conditions at a single height, and challenge the conventional assumptions that material substitution is the primary heat mitigation measure in multi-level environments and that building orientation plays only a minor role in microclimate regulation. All quantitative outputs stem from ideal courtyard shapes and cloudless summer scenarios, reflecting mechanistic microclimate patterns instead of globally applicable predictive metrics. Local validation is mandatory before extending these conclusions to other seasons or building typologies. For sustainable summer thermal regulation on multi-level campuses, this work highlights orientation and adaptive shading as primary design measures, while material configuration acts only as auxiliary fine-tuning. Full article

This study quantifies five decades (1975–2025) of residential architectural transformation in Delhi (Tier-I) and Patna (Tier-II), India, among middle-income-group households, and evaluates its implications for passive design loss and mechanical cooling dependence. A stratified survey of 1080 middle-income-group (MIG-I and MIG-II) households across six construction decades documents the systematic elimination of passive features: courtyard presence collapsed from 54.44% (Cohort A, 1975–1985) to 1.39% (Cohort C, 2015–2025); load-bearing masonry declined from 47.78% to 7.78%; and houses lacking passive cooling features quadrupled from 10.83% to 40.83%. Correspondingly, households with three or more air conditioning (AC) units rose from 12.78% (Cohort A) to 33.06% (Cohort C). However, 30–35% of households across all cohorts stated that the ‘indoor temperature remains comfortable without AC’, challenging deterministic AC-dependence assumptions. Regional divergence in drivers is evident: globalization dominates in Delhi (59.24%), while lack of traditional awareness dominates in Patna (39.29%), suggesting hierarchical diffusion and indicating a need for differentiated policy responses. Architectural homogenization shows a consistent association with higher AC ownership and electricity consumption, raising concerns about energy insecurity and climate vulnerability. Hybrid design, integrating traditional passive strategies with contemporary spatial needs, offers a pathway toward climate-resilient urban futures. Full article

The traditional market towns of the Western Sichuan Plain, known as Changzhen, represent a distinctive form of vernacular settlement shaped by the interplay of geographical conditions, migration history, and socio-economic dynamics. In the context of rural revitalisation and integrated urban–rural development, the conservation and renewal of these towns require a deeper understanding of their underlying spatial logic. This study employs a mixed-methods approach combining typo-morphological analysis with spatial measurement and statistical testing to investigate the core morphological indicator that determines plot-type differentiation in linear market towns, using Luodai and Yuantong as two representative cases in the Chengdu Plain. A total of 1113 plots are digitised and measured across four morphological indicators, supplemented by XGBoost classification and SHAP analysis for cross-validation. The findings reveal that plot depth is the core morphological indicator distinguishing the linear type from the enclosed courtyard type, with an effect size substantially larger than that of frontage-to-depth ratio and distance from the street, indicating that plot depth matters more than plot location in determining plot type. The two towns present contrasting patterns of plot-type composition, with frontage enclosed courtyard plots significantly larger than their non-frontage counterparts and no meaningful correlation between plot area and courtyard ratio. This study provides a quantifiable morphological framework for understanding plot-level differentiation in linear market towns and offers practical parameters for conservation and renewal. The findings highlight a specific threshold, with depths below approximately 12 m associated with the linear type and depths above approximately 18 m associated with the enclosed courtyard type, providing a tangible reference for planning decisions in historic districts. Full article

Courtyards and biophilic design have each been associated with improved environmental performance, occupant well-being, and architectural quality. However, their integration has received limited scholarly attention, and no comprehensive assessment framework currently exists to evaluate their combined contribution to sustainable architecture. This study addresses this gap by proposing a conceptual assessment framework based on the Integrated Value Model for Sustainability Assessment (MIVES). The framework draws on the literature from courtyard architecture, biophilic design, environmental psychology, and multi-criteria decision analysis. It adopts a hierarchical structure comprising requirements, criteria, and indicators related to environmental sustainability, biophilic quality, human well-being, and functional resilience. The framework also incorporates preliminary weighting strategies and value-function concepts to support the integration of diverse performance dimensions within a unified assessment structure. Rather than providing a validated assessment tool, the proposed framework establishes a conceptual foundation for future empirical calibration and testing while supporting more holistic evaluation of courtyard–biophilic integration across diverse climatic and cultural contexts. Full article

Coastal peri-urban parks must simultaneously support ecological restoration, public recreation, cultural continuity, and long-term operation, yet reproducible methods for matching local cultural resources with renewal needs remain limited. Taking Yandao Mountain Park in Qingdao, China, as a case study, this research develops a culture–need matching and scenario-based evaluation framework integrating the Local Cultural Resource Identification Index (LCRI), Renewal Need Index (RNI), Culture–Renewal Need Matching Matrix (CRNM), Public Behaviour Activation Index (PBAI), and Sustainable Renewal Effect Index (SREI). Data were obtained from four field surveys, 318 valid questionnaires, 12 semi-structured interviews, GIS-supported spatial interpretation and Average Nearest Neighbor analysis, AHP weighting, two-round Delphi consultation, and sensitivity analysis. Beer culture, residents’ living memory, mountain–sea landscape imagery, and Liyuan courtyard culture showed strong identification bases, while functional integration, operational improvement, all-age sharing, and ecological restoration were the main renewal needs. CRNM revealed differentiated culture–need relationships that informed spatial translation and functional embedding. Under the proposed renewal scenario, the field-observed PBAI baseline of 0.46 was compared with a Delphi-calibrated scenario estimate of 0.82, while the estimated overall SREI was 0.87. These values indicate scenario-based potential for behavioural activation and sustainable renewal rather than verified post-implementation performance. Full article

Post-disaster reconstruction is often framed as an opportunity to revitalize rural areas, yet its implications for the social and cultural sustainability of traditional rural morphology and identity remain contested. This study examines the spatial transformation of Gezin village, located on the eastern shore of Lake Hazar in Maden, Elazığ (Türkiye), on the East Anatolian Fault Zone, following the relocation and reconstruction processes triggered by successive earthquakes. Using the Hierarchical Morphological Analysis Method, the pre-disaster traditional settlement and the post-disaster residential areas were compared at the building, structure, parcel/building-block, and macroform levels, drawing on field studies, TOKİ housing plans, Microsoft Building Footprints, HGM orthophotos, and Sentinel-2 land use/land cover data processed in ArcGIS Pro 3.5.0 and QGIS 3.44.11. The findings reveal a two-directional outcome: the transition from adobe and masonry dwellings to reinforced-concrete and light-steel housing increased earthquake resilience at the building scale, but eliminated the production-oriented housing typology—courtyard, barn, hayloft, and storehouse—and replaced the topography-compatible organic fabric with compact, planned blocks. Between 2017 and 2025, built-up areas expanded by about 33% (from 136 to 182 ha), while cultivated land decreased by 66.4 ha and grassland by 73.3 ha. The study concludes that context-detached reconstruction functions as spatial relocation and identity loss, and advocates place-based, sustainable reconstruction approaches. Full article

Green exposure in public spaces plays a critical role in promoting mental health and well-being, especially for populations experiencing elevated psychological pressure in academically demanding environments such as university campuses. However, existing research remains largely limited to coarse-scale assessments, often overlooking the nuanced and nonlinear interactions between visual environmental characteristics and restorative quality across diverse spatial typologies. Addressing this gap, this study proposes a fine-scale, data-driven framework that integrates computer vision (CV) with perception-based evaluations using Shandong Jianzhu University as a case study. A semantic segmentation model (Mask2Former) was employed to extract 14 visual environmental elements from 193 campus photographs, while 426 students provided 4260 image-based evaluations of Perceived Restorative Quality (PRQ). Ridge regression optimized through cross-validation was used to identify key environmental correlates of PRQ, K-means clustering was applied to classify Campus Restorative Space (CRS) typologies, and Generalized Propensity Score Matching (GPSM) was employed to examine nonlinear dose–response relationships between sensory dimensions and restorative quality. The results indicate that natural elements, particularly vegetation and water-related features, are generally associated with higher PRQ scores; however, restorative responses do not consistently follow linear patterns. Several sensory dimensions exhibited threshold effects and diminishing marginal returns, suggesting that restorative benefits depend on balanced environmental composition rather than the simple accumulation of green elements. Furthermore, three CRS typologies—Greenery-Dominant Spaces, Open Landscape Spaces, and Courtyard Spaces—demonstrated distinct restorative pathways, indicating that the effects of environmental characteristics vary across spatial contexts. These findings support a context-dependent understanding of restorative environments and highlight the importance of spatial typology, environmental composition, and nonlinear responses in shaping restorative experiences. The study proposes a transferable analytical framework for assessing campus restorative environments and offers practical implications for evidence-based campus planning and design. Full article

Urban fragmentation represents one of the major challenges affecting post-socialist residential neighborhoods, generating underutilized spaces characterized by ecological degradation and reduced spatial cohesion. This study investigates the potential of ornamental and aromatic plants to support the regeneration of apartment courtyard spaces and their integration into urban green infrastructure systems through the evaluation of a proposed landscape design scenario. A comparative approach was employed, combining Space Syntax analysis, expert-based ecological assessment, and perceptual–visual evaluation to compare the existing site conditions with the proposed landscape design scenario in a post-socialist residential neighborhood in Craiova, Romania. Spatial configuration was assessed using the indicators of integration, connectivity, and mean depth, while ecological and perceptual performance were evaluated through biodiversity-related indicators and the Scenic Beauty Estimation (SBE) method based on expert assessments. The proposed intervention, founded on a stratified composition of ornamental and aromatic vegetation, reduced impervious surfaces and was associated with improvements in spatial permeability, biodiversity potential, and the visual quality of the landscape. Space Syntax analysis indicated an increase in configurational performance (ΔC ≈ +41.6%), while perceptual evaluation showed higher mean expert ratings for aesthetic, functional, and sustainability attributes in the proposed design scenario compared with the existing conditions. These findings suggest that, within the limits of this case study and the applied evaluation framework, small-scale green interventions based on ornamental and aromatic plants may contribute to improving the ecological and spatial performance of fragmented urban spaces and provide a methodological framework for assessing similar regeneration projects in post-socialist residential contexts. Full article

Traditional windcatchers are often discussed as passive cooling devices for hot–arid climates, yet their sustainability performance under contemporary comfort-controlled operation remains insufficiently understood. This study evaluates the energy and load-based carbon implications of integrating a windcatcher into a high-thermal-mass courtyard house in Şanlıurfa, Türkiye. A combined DesignBuilder v6.1/EnergyPlus v8.2 and CFD-based assessment was used: annual heating and cooling loads were calculated through EnergyPlus-based building energy simulation, while CFD analyses were used to interpret representative airflow behavior and localized thermal effects within the semi-open iwan. Scenarios varied operational schedule, geometry, material configuration, ventilation openings, and water pool integration. The results show strongly context-dependent performance rather than uniform energy or carbon benefit. Continuous operation weakened annual performance, whereas seasonal operation produced more balanced outcomes. The P.1 configuration produced the lowest total annual energy demand among the tested scenarios, decreasing total demand from 70,929.99 to 70,806.65 kWh/a, corresponding to a reduction of 123.34 kWh/a or 0.17% relative to the baseline. However, this limited reduction was accompanied by a 6.02% increase in cooling demand and a 2.52% decrease in heating demand. Consequently, the total load-based carbon indicator increased from 18.32 to 18.60 tCO₂/year, corresponding to an increase of 0.28 tCO₂/year or 1.53%. CFD results indicate that the semi-open iwan geometry and its orientation relative to prevailing winds constrained airflow effectiveness and limited the transfer of local cooling effects to conditioned zones. This study demonstrates that vernacular passive systems should be evaluated through integrated annual energy, airflow, and load-based carbon analyses before being adopted in sustainable renovation or climate-responsive design. Full article

Courtyard enclosure form and façade orientation are associated with near-wall microclimatic fluctuation and autumn façade-greening dynamics. This exploratory study monitored Boston ivy at six sample points in two-sided, three-sided, and four-sided enclosures with south-, west-, and north-facing façades. Near-wall temperature and relative humidity were recorded every 5 min, and fixed-ROI time-series imagery quantified leaf color change and defoliation. Mean thermal–humidity conditions varied modestly; daily temperature range varied from 8.79 ± 2.35 to 17.90 ± 7.21 °C and daily relative humidity range from 18.46 ± 4.59% to 29.81 ± 7.38%. DI50 occurred from 20 October to 1 November and DI80 from 6 to 25 November. Spearman analysis of 60 matched daily observations showed stronger associations of mean thermal–humidity indicators than fluctuation indicators with phenological indicators. RMedian correlated positively with LCR (ρ = 0.70), while DI correlated negatively with RMedian and Color Index (ρ = −0.50 and −0.53). Because enclosure form and façade orientation were partly coupled, their effects could not be separated. Overall, sample points differed more clearly in thermal–humidity fluctuation than in mean conditions, while phenological differences reflected enclosure form, façade orientation, near-wall thermal–humidity conditions, and exposure conditions. Full article

Historic residential buildings in Lingnan are affected by hot–humid and disaster-prone weather conditions, including high temperature, high humidity, intense solar radiation, monsoon winds, and typhoon-related climate stress, which challenge indoor thermal comfort, daylighting, natural ventilation, and adaptive reuse. Taking Jingzu Jiashu, a historic Chaoshan residence associated with overseas remittance culture, as a case study, this study develops a simulation workflow for climate-adaptive green retrofit. Digital documentation, architectural survey, material investigation, and climate data were integrated to establish a baseline model. PMV, DA300, and ACH/ACR were used to evaluate thermal comfort, daylighting, and natural ventilation. The baseline results show summer overheating, insufficient daylighting in deep rooms, and inadequate ventilation in representative rooms. Comfortable hours accounted for only 7.29–7.78%, thermally uncomfortable hours reached 42.84–51.53%, and the maximum PMV reached 4.65 in the rear hall and 3.54–3.65 in representative rooms. The effective daylight areas of the front and rear rooms were approximately 40% and 31%, while baseline ACH values ranged from 1.06 to 1.89 h⁻¹. An integrated retrofit strategy was proposed, including functional reorganization, envelope optimization, opening adjustment, ventilation-path organization, and courtyard/transitional-space improvement. After retrofit, comfortable hours increased to 32.00–42.45%, thermally uncomfortable hours decreased to 17.25–21.28%, maximum PMV values decreased to 1.82–1.86, daylight areas increased to 81% and 74%, and ACH values rose to 2.97–4.49 h⁻¹. The results indicate that building performance simulation can provide quantitative support for climate-adaptive green retrofit of historic Chaoshan residences in Lingnan, offering a methodological reference for healthier, lower-carbon, and more resilient reuse of similar historic dwellings. Full article

The paradigm shift in early childhood education from custodial care to development-centered environments underscores the importance of kindergarten indoor activity spaces. However, how spatial configuration influences children’s embodied behaviors remains underexplored, particularly in cold-arid regions of western China, where prolonged indoor periods amplify the significance of interior spatial quality. Integrating embodied cognition and affordance theories, this study develops a coupling framework linking spatial metrics with behavioral outcomes. A mixed-methods approach combined 196 parent and 36 teacher questionnaires with space syntax analysis across three typical kindergartens in Lanzhou, China. Visual Integration [HH] was positively correlated with physical movement (r = 0.52, p < 0.01) and negatively correlated with solitude (r = −0.52, p < 0.01); Connectivity was positively associated with sensory exploration (r = 0.42, p < 0.05). Coupling coordination degrees ranged from 0.689 to 0.856, revealing a “high coupling, imbalanced development” pattern, with privacy affordance as a notable shortfall in the wide-corridor typology. The older courtyard-style kindergarten surpassed the newly built one (0.856 vs. 0.838) despite lower facility quality. Parent satisfaction depended more on spatial richness (r = 0.61) than on facility quality (r = 0.47). Spatial configuration shapes embodied behaviors through layout-specific affordances. An evidence-based optimization framework is proposed for kindergarten design in cold-arid climate zones. Full article

Rising cooling demand in hot-arid climates requires passive, low-energy building strategies that can be compared across heterogeneous evidence. This study develops a PRISMA-informed systematic mapping review and an evidence-based energy-efficiency decision matrix for building-scale passive cooling strategies in hot-arid climates, while comparing evidence from both traditional and contemporary building contexts. Scopus and Web of Science Core Collection were searched for English-language journal articles and reviews published between 2010 and 2026. Rather than conducting statistical meta-analysis, the review uses qualitative and evidence-based synthesis to map, classify, and interpret heterogeneous performance evidence. After duplicate removal, 844 records were screened. A completed prioritized full-text synthesis assessed 92 reports and produced a core analytical evidence base of 78 studies, supported by 11 borderline or contextual studies, giving 89 mapped studies. The studies were coded by strategy cluster, climatic context, building typology, evidence type, performance metric, energy relevance, water dependency, implementation complexity, maintenance sensitivity, and evidence strength. Seven strategy clusters were identified: evaporative/windcatcher/solar-chimney systems; envelope/façade/shading strategies; courtyard/microclimate strategies; roof-based cooling; earth-to-air or ground-coupled cooling; natural ventilation/night flushing; and integrated passive cooling packages. The results show that passive cooling decisions require more than a thermal performance comparison. The proposed matrix distinguishes performance potential from implementation suitability and provides a structured design-support framework for low-energy hot-arid buildings. Full article

Urbanization in Northern Nigeria has accelerated the adoption of modern architectural forms that often neglect climatic responsiveness and indigenous cultural values. This study examines how vernacular architectural principles can be integrated into contemporary urban development to enhance climate resilience. Focusing on Sokoto, Katsina, and Kano, the research adopts a mixed-methods approach combining field measurements, simulation modeling, structured interviews, and policy analysis. Findings indicate that traditional Hausa architecture achieves indoor temperature reductions of 4–6 °C compared to ambient outdoor conditions. This is primarily due to courtyard configurations, high thermal mass, and passive ventilation strategies associated with the architecture. Life-cycle assessment reveals that vernacular materials exhibit 60–75% lower embodied energy than modern buildings. Despite these advantages, policy frameworks inadequately support their integration. This study proposes an integrative model combining vernacular strategies with modern technologies and policy reforms. The findings contribute to sustainable urban design discourse and align with global sustainability goals. Full article