Search Results (147)

Background: Qu was the core starter of traditional Chinese fermentation and had long relied on artisan experience, which led to limited batch stability and standardization. This review organized the preparation processes, microbial diversity, and application patterns of qu in foods from experience to science perspective. Methods: This work summarized typical process parameters for daqu, xiaoqu, hongqu, wheat bran or jiangqu, douchi qu, and qu for mold curd blocks used for furu. Parameters covered raw material moisture, bed thickness, aeration or turning, drying, final moisture, and classification by peak temperature. Multi-omics evidence was used to analyze the coupling of temperature regime, community assembly, and functional differentiation. Indicators for pigment or enzyme production efficiency and safety control such as citrinin in hongqu were included. Results: Daqu showed low, medium, and high temperature regimes. Thermal history governed differences in communities and enzyme profiles and determined downstream fermentation fitness. Xiaoqu rapidly established a three-stage symbiotic network of Rhizopus, Saccharomyces, and lactic acid bacteria, which supported integrated saccharification and alcohol fermentation. Hongqu centered on Monascus and achieved coordinated pigment and aroma formation with toxin risk control through programmed control of temperature, humidity, and final moisture. Wheat bran or jiangqu served as an enzyme production engine for salt-tolerant fermentation, and the combined effects of heat and humidity during the qu period, aeration, and bed loading determined hydrolysis efficiency in salt. Douchi and furu mold curd blocks used thin-layer cultivation and near-saturated humidity to achieve stable mold growth and reproducible interfacial moisture. Conclusions: Parameterizing and online monitoring of key variables in qu making built a process fingerprint with peak temperature, heating rate, and moisture rebound curve at its core. Standardization and functional customization guided by temperature regime, community, and function were the key path for the transition of qu from workshop practice to industry and from experience to science. This approach provided replicable solutions for flavor consistency and safety in alcoholic beverages, sauces, vinegars, and soybean products. Full article

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi, frequently present in food and representing significant health hazards. Exposure occurs through the consumption of contaminated foods or animal-derived products from livestock fed with contaminated feed. This study evaluated internal exposure to twelve mycotoxins in 492 first-morning urine samples from adults, aged 18–65 years, in the Valencian Community, Spain. Samples were analysed using a “dilute-and-shoot” approach followed by UHPLC-MS/MS. Aflatoxins (AFs) were the most frequently detected, with a geometric mean (GM) of 1.17 ng/mL and a 95th percentile (P95) of 6.04 ng/mL. Alternariol (AOH), present in 63% of samples, showed high concentrations (GM: 0.98 ng/mL; P95: 4.74 ng/mL). Emerging mycotoxins such as alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), citrinin (CIT), and sterigmatocystin (STER) were also considered due to their potential health impacts. Exposure levels correlated with variables including sex, age, annual income, smoking status, and recent consumption of meat and cereals. Probable daily intakes (PDIs) were estimated from urinary concentrations to support risk assessment. Hazard Quotients (HQs), Margins of Exposure (MOEs), the Hazard Index (HI) and the total Margin of Exposure (MOET) were calculated to evaluate the risk associated with mycotoxin exposure. Findings suggest that potential health risks cannot be excluded. Full article

This study investigated the occurrence of fungi and mycotoxins throughout the rice processing chain, from paddy rice to final white rice, in two rice varieties (variety I and variety II). A total of 75 fungal isolates were identified, belonging to the genera Penicillium, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Talaromyces. Variety I exhibited a higher prevalence of Penicillium and Alternaria, whereas Variety II was dominated mainly by Alternaria, accounting for 63% of all isolates. Multi-mycotoxin screening of 22 mycotoxins revealed contamination by tenuazonic acid (TeA), zearalenone (ZEN), and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-AcDON), with TeA concentrations exceeding 4000 µg/kg in whitened rice of variety II. Cluster analysis showed paddy and brown rice grouping together due to higher fungal loads and toxin levels, whereas whitened and final white rice clustered separately, reflecting reduced fungal counts but persistence of TeA, 15-AcDON, ZEN, and citrinin (CIT). The co-clustering of Alternaria with TeA and ZEN indicates strong field-related contamination. Although processing significantly decreased fungal loads, residual toxins persisted, emphasizing that rice polishing does not fully mitigate mycotoxin risks. These findings underscore the need for comprehensive surveillance and integrated management practices across the rice supply chain to minimize potential health hazards associated with fungal contaminants and their toxic metabolites. Full article

(1) Background: This study highlights the diversity and distribution of non-reducing polyketide synthases (NR-PKSs) in Ascomycota and their role in producing bioactive aromatic polyketides. (2) Methods: A reference dataset of non-NR-PKSs was compiled from published literature and cross-examined using NaPDoS2 and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes Ortholog (KEGG KO) databases. Signature domains were validated through Pfam and CDD, while phylogenetic classification was conducted by comparing the dataset with the NaPDoS2 reference tree. Cluster support was derived from KEGG KO and homology-based modeling. Additionally, NR-PKS clade distribution across KEGG genomes was analyzed, and co-expression patterns were examined using STRING. (3) Results: This study identified nine distinct clades of NR-PKSs, six of which are supported by unique KEGG Orthology (KO) numbers. These clades are as follows: clade 1: polyketide synthase A (PksA, K15316); clade 2: fusarubinsynthase 1 (Fsr1); clade 3: white A (WA, K15321); clade 4: polyketide synthase citrinin (PksCT); clade 5: zearalenone synthase 1 (Zea1, K15417); clade 6: orsellinic acid synthase A (OrsA, K15416); clade 7: aurofusarin polyketide synthase A (AptA, K15317); clade 8: monodictyphenone polyketide synthase G (MdpG, K15415); and clade 9: bikaverin polyketide synthase (Bik1). The present investigation also reports incongruency in the distribution of different NR-PKSs and fungi phylogeny within the phylum Ascomycota. (4) Conclusions: The distribution of NR-PKSs in Ascomycota defies phylogenetic boundaries, reflecting the impact of horizontal gene transfer, gene loss, and ecological adaptation. Full article

Monascus pigments (MPs) are the most valuable secondary metabolites of Monascus. To improve the production of MPs is of great importance to food processing. Currently, studies using rice bran as the substrate to produce MPs are rare. In this study, rice bran with different carbon sources and cellulase hydrolysis conditions were explored in Monascus purpureus M9 in this study. Through single-factor experiments and Box–Behnken response surface optimization, we demonstrated that mannitol supplementation combined with cellulase treatment of substrate significantly enhanced the yields of MPs. The optimal conditions (4.00% mannitol, cellulase hydrolysis at 60 °C for 2 h) achieved a maximum color value of 3538 U/g. Furthermore, comparative evaluation under different culture conditions, including only rice bran (RB), cellulase hydrolysis of rice bran (Cel), rice bran supplemented with mannitol (Man), mannitol supplementation combined with cellulase pretreatment of substrate (Opti), and only rice (Rice), confirmed the effectiveness of the optimized treatment. The color value of the Opti group was 27.95 times more than that of the RB group and reached 80.96% of the counterpart of the Rice group. The Opti group also significantly enhanced the yields of two orange pigments (Monascorubrin and Rubropunctatin), induced more sexual spore formation, and exhibited the maximum biomass and colony diameter among different groups. The hyphae of the Man and Opti groups were full, intact, and tubular. The citrinin content in the Opti group was under the limit standard of China. The data provides a theoretical basis reference for improving the yields of MPs with RB as the substrate. Full article

Citrinin (CTN), a mycotoxin commonly found in contaminated food and animal feed, impairs intestinal barrier integrity through oxidative stress and cytotoxicity. However, its link to ferroptosis, an iron-dependent form of regulated cell death, remains unclear. This study investigated whether CTN induces ferroptosis in intestinal epithelial cells and evaluated the protective role of Euphorbia hypericifolia (EH) against CTN-induced oxidative damage and tight junction (TJ) disruption. Using IPEC-J2 cells exposed to CTN, intracellular ferrous ion (Fe²⁺) levels, reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, and TJ integrity were assessed using FerroOrange and DCFH-DA staining, RT-qPCR, immunofluorescence, and WST-1 assays. Additionally, a high-throughput screen of 459 natural products identified EH extract as a top candidate in mitigating CTN toxicity. The CTN treatment significantly elevated intracellular Fe²⁺ and ROS levels, downregulated antioxidant genes (notably CAT), and disrupted ZO-1 expression and TJ morphology in IPEC-J2 cells, all hallmarks of ferroptosis-like cell death. Co-treatment with EH extract effectively reversed these effects, restoring antioxidant gene expression, reducing Fe²⁺ and ROS accumulation, and preserving TJ structure. Phytochemical profiling of EH extract revealed several bioactive compounds potentially responsible for its protective effects. These findings suggest that CTN induces ferroptosis-related cytotoxicity in IPEC-J2 cells, but EH alleviates this toxicity by modulating oxidative stress and iron homeostasis, supporting its potential use as a natural feed additive for intestinal protection Full article

Background: Citrinin (CIT) is a mycotoxin produced by various fungi contaminating stored cereals and fruits. While biomonitoring and food occurrence data indicate widespread exposure, its public health risks remain unclear due to the lack of human toxicokinetic (TK) data. Methods: A UHPLC-MS/MS method was validated for CIT quantification in capillary blood (VAMS Mitra^® tips), feces, and urine obtaining LLOQs ≤ 0.05 ng/mL. A human TK study was conducted following a single oral bolus of 200 ng/kg bw CIT. Individual capillary blood (VAMS Mitra^® tips), feces, and urine samples were collected for 48 h after exposure. Samples were analyzed to determine CIT’s TK profile. Results: TK modeling was performed using a multi-compartmental structure with a hierarchical Bayesian population approach, allowing robust parameter estimation despite the lack of standards for CIT metabolites. Conclusions: The derived TK parameters align with preliminary human data and significantly advance CIT exposure assessment via biomonitoring. A human inter-individual toxicokinetic variability (HK_AF) of 1.92 was calculated based on the derived AUC, indicating that EFSA’s current default uncertainty factor for TK variability is adequately protective for at least 95% of the population. Full article

Over the past few decades, scientific interest in mycotoxins—fungal metabolites that pose serious concern to food safety, crop health, and both human and animal health—has increased. While major mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, ochratoxins, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, zearalenone, citrinin, patulin, and ergot alkaloids are well studied, emerging mycotoxins remain underexplored and insufficiently investigated. Among these, moniliformin (MON) is frequently detected in maize-based food and feed; however, the absence of regulatory limits and standardized detection methods limits effective monitoring and comprehensive risk assessment. The European Food Safety Authority highlights insufficient occurrence and toxicological data as challenges to regulatory development. This study compares three analytical methods—CE-DAD, HPLC-DAD, and HPLC-MS/MS—for moniliformin detection and quantification in maize, evaluating linear range, correlation coefficients, detection and quantification limits, accuracy, and precision. Results show that CE-DAD and HPLC-MS/MS provide reliable and comparable sensitivity and selectivity, while HPLC-DAD is less sensitive. Application to real samples enabled deterministic dietary exposure estimation based on consumption, supporting preliminary risk characterization. This research provides a critical comparison that supports the advancement of improved monitoring and risk assessment frameworks, representing a key step toward innovating the detection of under-monitored mycotoxins and laying the groundwork for future regulatory and preventive measures targeting MON. Full article

The global increase in chicken meat production and consumption has heightened concerns regarding the safety of chicken meat and its derived products. This study aimed to investigate the presence of Penicillium and Aspergillus mycotoxins in 50 samples of chicken breast muscle and liver collected from the Croatian market. Eight mycotoxins commonly produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium species were analyzed: aflatoxins B₁ (AFB₁), G₁ (AFG₁), B₂ (AFB₂), and G₂ (AFG₂); sterigmatocystin (STC); ochratoxin A (OTA); cyclopiazonic acid (CPA); and citrinin (CIT). Mycotoxin concentrations were determined using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) following sample cleanup with immunoaffinity columns while a QuEChERS-based method was applied for CPA. Mycotoxin occurrence was higher in liver samples, indicating the liver as primary site of mycotoxin accumulation compared to muscle tissue, where only CPA was detected. CPA was present in 20% of all samples, with the highest concentration (6.50 µg/kg) found in breast muscle, detected for the first time in fresh meat. AFB₁ and OTA were each detected in 10% of samples, and CIT was found in 4%—all exclusively in liver tissue. Notably, 4 out of the 17 contaminated samples contained more than one mycotoxin. Although the detected concentrations can be considered too low to pose an immediate health risk, the contamination rate suggests further research into these mycotoxins in chicken and other poultry species is needed. Full article

Citrinin (CTN) is a mycotoxin that adversely affects livestock by contaminating stored grains, leading to significant health and economic impacts. This study investigates the toxicological effects of CTN on porcine small intestinal epithelial cells (IPEC-J2) and explores potential mitigation strategies using natural products and chemical inhibitors. Our study demonstrates that CTN induces cytotoxicity through the TGF-β signaling pathway, triggering apoptosis and G2/M phase cell cycle arrest. We examined cell viability, cell cycle progression, and gene expression changes in IPEC-J2 cells treated with CTN, 4′-Hydroxydehydrokawain (4-HDK), and LY-364947, a TGF-β receptor inhibitor. LY-364947 treatment confirmed that CTN-induced toxicity is mediated through TGF-β signaling. Although 4-HDK alleviated CTN-induced cytotoxicity by improving cell viability and reducing apoptosis, its direct involvement in TGF-β inhibition remains unclear. These results suggest that CTN disrupts intestinal epithelial cell homeostasis via TGF-β activation, whereas 4-HDK may exert protective effects through an alternative mechanism. Our study provides novel insights into CTN-induced toxicity mechanisms and highlights the therapeutic potential of 4-HDK as a mitigator of mycotoxin-induced cellular damage. Full article

Mycotoxins are toxic compounds found in food and feed that pose significant risks to human and animal health. This work reviews recent studies on the cytotoxic effects of four mycotoxins: beauvericin (BEA), citrinin (CTN), moniliformin (MON), and patulin (PAT) in various cell lines. Additionally, an experimental study evaluates the effects of these mycotoxins and their binary combinations on human neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y) after 24 and 48 h of exposure using the 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-Diphenyltetrazolium Bromide (MTT) assay. This analysis is driven by the additional risks posed by the frequent occurrence of these combinations in agricultural and food products, as well as the lack of studies addressing their effects, interactions, and regulatory frameworks. This research focuses on comparing the cytotoxicity data obtained in the SH-SY5Y cell line with previously reported findings in the literature for other cell lines exposed to BEA, CTN, MON, and PAT, individually and in binary combination. The literature highlights significant scientific interest in understanding the cytotoxic effects of these mycotoxins, with findings varying based on exposure time and concentration. Experimentally, PAT demonstrated the highest toxicity in SH-SY5Y cells, while MON was the least toxic. Among combinations, BEA + MON and CTN + PAT showed the greatest reduction in cell viability. However, medium inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) values were not reached for most combinations involving MON, reflecting its lower potency under the studied conditions. These findings underscore the importance of further investigation and enhanced regulations to address the health risks posed by mycotoxins, as their cytotoxic effects remain a pressing issue in food safety. Full article

Monascus is a fungus widely used in food fermentation. This study employed microbial technology, combined with microscopic morphological observations and ITS sequence analysis, to isolate, purify, and identify 10 strains of red yeast mold from various Monascus products. After the HPLC detection of metabolic products, the M8 strain containing the toxic substance citrinin was excluded. Using the EWM-TOPSIS model, the remaining nine safe Monascus strains were evaluated for their inhibitory activities against pancreatic lipase, α-glucosidase, α-amylase, and the angiotensin-converting enzyme. The M2 strain with the highest comprehensive scores for lowering blood sugar, blood lipids, and blood pressure was selected. Its fermentation product at a concentration of 3 mg/mL had inhibition rates of 96.938%, 81.903%, and 72.215%, respectively. The contents of the blood lipid-lowering active substance Monacolin K and the blood sugar and blood pressure-lowering active substance GABA were 18.078 mg/g and 5.137 mg/g, respectively. This strain can be utilized for the biosynthesis of important active substances such as Monacolin K and GABA, as well as for the fermentation production of safe and effective functional foods to address health issues like high blood lipids, high blood sugar, and high blood pressure in people. This study also provides insights into the use of natural fungi to produce healthy foods for combating chronic diseases in humans. Full article

Citrinin (CIT) is a nephrotoxic mycotoxin commonly found in a broad range of foods, including cereals, spices, nuts, or Monascus fermentation products. Analyses have shown that CIT is present in processed foods in significantly lower concentrations than in unprocessed materials. Modified forms of CIT arising during food processing may provide an explanation for the discrepancy. This study deals with the thermal stability of CIT and the formation of reaction products of CIT with carbohydrates, followed by toxicological evaluations using cell culture models. HPLC-HRMS degradation curves of CIT heated in different matrix model systems were recorded, and the formation of decarboxycitrinin (DCIT), the main degradation product, was quantified. Additionally, chemical structures of reaction products of CIT with carbohydrates were tentatively identified using MS/MS spectra and stable isotope labelling. Subsequently, the degradation of CIT during biscuit baking was studied, and carbohydrate-bound forms of CIT were detected after enzymatic starch digestion. The formation of DCIT could explain the majority of CIT degradation, but, depending on the process, covalent binding to carbohydrates can also be highly relevant. Cytotoxicity of DCIT in IHKE-cells was found to be lower compared to CIT, while the toxicity as well as the intestinal metabolism of carbohydrate-bound CIT was not evaluated. Full article

Citrinin (CIT), a mycotoxin commonly found in cereals, is produced by fungi from the Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Monascus genera. While its nephrotoxic effects are well studied, its impact on neurons is less understood. This study investigates CIT-induced toxicity in human neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y). The IC₅₀ values for cells treated with CIT were 77.1 μM at 24 h and 74.7 μM at 48 h using MTT assay, and 101.0 μM at 24 h and 54.7 μM at 48 h using neutral red assay. CIT exposure caused G2/M phase arrest, with cells in this phase increasing from 11.83% (control) to 33.10% at 50 μM CIT. At 50 μM, the percentage of cells in the S phase also increased, which may suggest that cellular stress pathways were activated. Moreover, an increase in late apoptosis process was noted in cells exposed to CIT for 24 h, particularly at the highest concentrations (38.75 and 50 µM). Western blot analysis confirmed a rapid change in the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2, but no significant changes in Bax. In conclusion, CIT induces apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in SH-SY5Y cells. However, further transcriptomic studies in specific proteins involved in different pathways described in this work are needed to gain a comprehensive understanding of the specific mechanisms underlying CIT’s toxicity in SH-SY5Y cells. Full article

According to the scientific information reviewed, cheese is highly susceptible to contamination by mycotoxin-producing fungi, primarily species from the genera Aspergillus (A. niger, A. flavus) and Penicillium (P. commune, P. solitum, P. palitans, and P. crustosum). Studies on various types of cheese made from cow’s milk report an average concentration of Aflatoxin M1 (AFM₁) at 13,000 ng kg⁻¹, which is alarming since the regulatory limits for AFM₁ in cheese range from 250 to 500 ng kg⁻¹. For instance, limits set by Codex Alimentarius, the European Commission (EC), Turkey, and Iran are 250 ng kg⁻¹. In the Netherlands, the limit is 200 ng kg⁻¹, and in Italy, it is 450 ng kg⁻¹. However, the concentration of mycotoxins frequently exceeds these regulatory limits, including critical mycotoxins such as ochratoxin A, citrinin, and cyclopiazonic acid, which pose significant global health concerns. Therefore, this study aims to review the mycobiota responsible for producing key mycotoxins in cheese and to assess the influence of physicochemical factors on fungal growth and mycotoxin production. By incorporating control strategies such as hygiene practices, pasteurization, and the use of preservatives, this study seeks to improve methodologies in the cheese production chain and mitigate contamination by fungi and mycotoxins. Full article