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Keywords = active rear wheel steering control

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21 pages, 6961 KiB  
Article
Research on the Stability Control of Four-Wheel Steering for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicles
by Hongyu Pang, Qiping Chen, Yuanhao Cai, Chunhui Gong and Zhiqiang Jiang
Symmetry 2025, 17(5), 732; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym17050732 - 9 May 2025
Viewed by 560
Abstract
To address the challenge of optimizing system adaptability, disturbance rejection, control precision, and convergence speed simultaneously in four-wheel steering (4WS) stability control, a 4WS controller with a variable steering ratio (VSR) strategy and fast adaptive super-twisting (FAST) sliding mode control is proposed to [...] Read more.
To address the challenge of optimizing system adaptability, disturbance rejection, control precision, and convergence speed simultaneously in four-wheel steering (4WS) stability control, a 4WS controller with a variable steering ratio (VSR) strategy and fast adaptive super-twisting (FAST) sliding mode control is proposed to control and output the steering angles of four wheels. The ideal VSR strategy is designed based on the constant yaw rate gain, and a cubic quasi-uniform B-spline curve fitting method is innovatively used to optimize the VSR curve, effectively mitigating steering fluctuations and obtaining precise reference front wheel angles. A controller based on FAST is designed for active rear wheel steering control using a symmetric 4WS vehicle model. Under double-lane change conditions with varying speeds, the simulations show that, compared with the constant steering ratio, the proposed VSR strategy enhances low-speed sensitivity and high-speed stability, improving the system’s adaptability to different operating conditions. Compared with conventional sliding mode control methods, the proposed FAST algorithm reduces chattering while increasing convergence speed and control precision. The VSR-FAST controller achieves optimization levels of more than 7.3% in sideslip angle and over 41% in yaw rate across different speeds, achieving an overall improvement in the stability control performance of the 4WS system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Engineering and Materials)
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19 pages, 5200 KiB  
Article
Research on Anti-Rollover Coordinated Control Strategy of Electric Forklift
by Yuefei Yang, Jingbo Wu and Zhijun Guo
World Electr. Veh. J. 2025, 16(2), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj16020097 - 12 Feb 2025
Viewed by 937
Abstract
In order to solve the problem that electric forklifts are prone to rollover when turning, a coordinated control strategy for anti-rollover of electric forklifts is proposed. A forklift dynamics simulation model with integrated centroid position is constructed, the stability of the forklift is [...] Read more.
In order to solve the problem that electric forklifts are prone to rollover when turning, a coordinated control strategy for anti-rollover of electric forklifts is proposed. A forklift dynamics simulation model with integrated centroid position is constructed, the stability of the forklift is judged by the phase plane area division method, the upper controller, including the active steering controller, and the differential brake controller are designed, the control weight coefficient of the active steering controller and the differential brake controller in different control domains is determined through the coordination controller, so as to obtain the required additional rear wheel rotation angle and additional yaw torque, and the braking force distribution controller exerts braking force to the wheel according to the additional yaw torque. A simulation model is built to verify the effectiveness of this control strategy, and the simulation results show that the control strategy can greatly reduce the risk of rollover when the forklift is cornering and further improve the stability of the forklift. Full article
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23 pages, 16564 KiB  
Article
Cooperative Control of Distributed Drive Electric Vehicles for Handling, Stability, and Energy Efficiency, via ARS and DYC
by Ningyuan Guo, Jie Ye and Zihao Huang
Sustainability 2024, 16(24), 11301; https://doi.org/10.3390/su162411301 - 23 Dec 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1147
Abstract
Distributed drive electric vehicles (DDEV), characterized by their independently drivable wheels, offer significant advantages in terms of vehicle handling, stability, and energy efficiency. These attributes collectively contribute to enhancing driving safety and extending the all-electric range for sustainable transportation. Nonetheless, the challenge persists [...] Read more.
Distributed drive electric vehicles (DDEV), characterized by their independently drivable wheels, offer significant advantages in terms of vehicle handling, stability, and energy efficiency. These attributes collectively contribute to enhancing driving safety and extending the all-electric range for sustainable transportation. Nonetheless, the challenge persists in designing a control strategy that effectively coordinates the objectives of handling, stability, and energy efficiency under both lateral and longitudinal driving conditions. To this end, this paper proposes a cooperative control strategy for DDEVs, incorporating active rear steering (ARS) and direct yaw moment control (DYC) to enhance handling capabilities, stability, and energy efficiency. A stability boundary is delineated using an analytical expression that correlates with the front wheel steering angle, and an adjustment factor is introduced to quantify vehicle stability based on this input parameter. This factor aids in establishing a coordinated control reference for handling and stability. At the upper-level motion control layer, a model predictive control method is developed to track this reference and implement ARS and DYC for superior performance. Specifically, the rear lateral force serves as the control command for ARS, which is converted into a rear wheel steering angle using a tire inverse model. Meanwhile, the front lateral force is modeled as linear-time-varying to simplify calculations. At the lower-level torque allocation layer, the adjustment factor is utilized to balance tire workload rate and in-wheel motors’ (IWM) energy consumption, enabling efficient switching between energy consumption and driving stability targets, and the torque allocation is conducted to acquire the expected IWMs’ command. Both the upper and lower-level optimization problems are formulated as convex problems, ensuring efficient and effective solutions. Simulations verify the effectiveness of this strategy in improving handling, stability, and energy economy under DLC cases, while maintaining high computational efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Powertrain Design and Control in Sustainable Electric Vehicles)
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12 pages, 2426 KiB  
Article
A Dual-Layer Control System for Steering Stability of Distributed-Drive Electric Vehicle
by Xianghui Xiao, Zhenshan Zhang, Mingxian Huang, Luchang Guan, Yunhao Song and Junbin Zeng
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(11), 515; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15110515 - 8 Nov 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1312
Abstract
In addressing the limitations of traditional steering stability control strategies applied to distributed-drive electric vehicles (DDEVs)—which primarily focus on measuring yaw rate and sideslip angle and may result in loss of control during steering maneuvers—this study conducts a more comprehensive analysis of DDEVs’ [...] Read more.
In addressing the limitations of traditional steering stability control strategies applied to distributed-drive electric vehicles (DDEVs)—which primarily focus on measuring yaw rate and sideslip angle and may result in loss of control during steering maneuvers—this study conducts a more comprehensive analysis of DDEVs’ steering control stability. It specifically investigates the relationships among the lateral positions of both the front and rear wheels, the slip ratios, and the angular orientation of the vehicle’s body during steering processes. Furthermore, a dual-layer steering stability control system aimed at enhancing the steering stability performance of DDEVs is introduced. This control system consists of two components: a lateral controller and a longitudinal controller. The lateral controller aims to establish clear linkages among four key variables, the front and rear wheel sideslip angles, yaw rate, and sideslip angle, and then to compute the necessary active front wheel steering angle and corresponding yaw moment based on the current vehicle body attitude. The findings indicate that, in comparison to the conventional DDEV controller, the proposed two-layer controller achieves substantially closer alignment to the reference curve during steering, with the accuracy increased by a factor of approximately 5 to 20. These results unequivocally affirm the efficacy and viability of the proposed approach. Full article
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22 pages, 3479 KiB  
Article
Modeling, System Identification, and Control of a Railway Running Gear with Independently Rotating Wheels on a Scaled Test Rig
by Tobias Posielek
Electronics 2024, 13(20), 3983; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13203983 - 10 Oct 2024
Viewed by 904
Abstract
The development and validation of lateral control strategies for railway running gears with independently rotating driven wheels (IRDWs) are an active research area due to their potential to enhance straight-track centering, curve steering performance, and reduce noise and wheel–rail wear. This paper focuses [...] Read more.
The development and validation of lateral control strategies for railway running gears with independently rotating driven wheels (IRDWs) are an active research area due to their potential to enhance straight-track centering, curve steering performance, and reduce noise and wheel–rail wear. This paper focuses on the practical application of theoretical models to a 1:5 scaled test rig developed by the German Aerospace Center (DLR), addressing the challenges posed by unmodeled phenomena such as hysteresis, varying damping and parameter identification. The theoretical model from prior work is adapted based on empirical measurements from the test rig, incorporating the varying open-loop stability of the front and rear wheel carriers, hysteresis effects, and other dynamic properties typically neglected in literature. A transparent procedure for identifying dynamic parameters is developed, validated through closed- and open-loop measurements. The refined model informs the design and tuning of a cascaded PI and PD controller, enhancing system stabilization by compensating for hysteresis and damping variations. The proposed approach demonstrates improved robustness and performance in controlling the lateral displacement of IRDWs, contributing to the advancement of safety-critical railway technologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Systems & Control Engineering)
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33 pages, 12225 KiB  
Article
Coordinated Control for the Trajectory Tracking of Four-Wheel Independent Drive–Four-Wheel Independent Steering Electric Vehicles Based on the Extension Dynamic Stability Domain
by Yiran Qiao, Xinbo Chen and Dongxiao Yin
Actuators 2024, 13(2), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/act13020077 - 16 Feb 2024
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2770
Abstract
In order to achieve multi-objective chassis coordination control for 4WID-4WIS (four-wheel independent drive–four-wheel independent steering) electric vehicles, this paper proposes a coordinated control strategy based on the extension dynamic stability domain. The strategy aims to improve trajectory tracking performance, handling stability, and economy. [...] Read more.
In order to achieve multi-objective chassis coordination control for 4WID-4WIS (four-wheel independent drive–four-wheel independent steering) electric vehicles, this paper proposes a coordinated control strategy based on the extension dynamic stability domain. The strategy aims to improve trajectory tracking performance, handling stability, and economy. Firstly, expert PID and model predictive control (MPC) are used to achieve longitudinal speed tracking and lateral path tracking, respectively. Then, a sliding mode controller is designed to calculate the expected yaw moment based on the desired vehicle states. The extension theory is applied to construct the extension dynamic stability domain, taking into account the linear response characteristics of the vehicle. Different coordinated allocation strategies are devised within various extension domains, providing control targets for direct yaw moment control (DYC) and active rear steering (ARS). Additionally, a compound torque distribution strategy is formulated to optimize driving efficiency and tire adhesion rate, considering the vehicle’s economy and stability requirements. The optimal wheel torque is calculated based on this strategy. Simulation tests using the CarSim/Simulink co-simulation platform are conducted under slalom test and double-lane change to validate the control strategy. The test results demonstrate that the proposed control strategy not only achieves good trajectory tracking performance but also enhances handling stability and economy during driving. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Intelligent Vehicle Dynamics and Control)
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19 pages, 13565 KiB  
Article
Design and Implementation of Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulation Environment Using System Identification Method for Independent Rear Wheel Steering System
by Chulwoo Moon
Machines 2023, 11(11), 996; https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11110996 - 27 Oct 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2660
Abstract
In the automotive field, with the advancement of electronic and signal processing technologies, active control-based chassis systems have been developed to enhance vehicle stability. In this study, a Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) simulation environment was developed to effectively improve time and cost during the development [...] Read more.
In the automotive field, with the advancement of electronic and signal processing technologies, active control-based chassis systems have been developed to enhance vehicle stability. In this study, a Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) simulation environment was developed to effectively improve time and cost during the development process of an independent rear-wheel steering system. The HiL Simulation Environment was developed—a specific test bench capable of simulating driving loads on the prototype. Based on the system identification method, a reaction force modeling technique for the target driving loads was proposed. The full vehicle dynamics simulation model was developed with a lateral maximum error of 4.5% and a correlation coefficient of 0.98, as well as a longitudinal maximum error of 0.1% and a correlation coefficient of 0.99. The reaction force generation system had a maximum error of 2.9%. Using the developed HiL simulation environment, performance verification and analysis of the independent rear-wheel steering system were conducted, showing reductions of 5.1% in lateral acceleration and 5.2% in yaw rate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Vehicle Dynamics and Control)
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19 pages, 5274 KiB  
Article
Torque Vectoring Control Strategies Comparison for Hybrid Vehicles with Two Rear Electric Motors
by Henrique de Carvalho Pinheiro, Massimiliana Carello and Elisabetta Punta
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(14), 8109; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13148109 - 12 Jul 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3922
Abstract
In today’s automotive industry, electrification is a major trend. In-wheel electric motors are among the most promising technologies yet to be fully developed. Indeed, the presence of multiple in-wheel motors acting as independent actuators allows for the implementation of innovative active systems and [...] Read more.
In today’s automotive industry, electrification is a major trend. In-wheel electric motors are among the most promising technologies yet to be fully developed. Indeed, the presence of multiple in-wheel motors acting as independent actuators allows for the implementation of innovative active systems and control strategies. This paper analyzes different design possibilities for a torque vectoring system applied to an originally compact front-wheel drive hybrid electric vehicle with one internal combustion engine for the front axle and two added electric motors integrated in the wheels of the rear axle. A 14 degrees of freedom vehicle model is present o accurately reproduce the nonlinearities of vehicle dynamic phenomena and exploited to obtain high-fidelity numerical simulation results. Different control methods are compared, a PID, an LQR, and four different sliding mode control strategies. All controllers achieve sufficiently good results in terms of lateral dynamics compared with the basic hybrid version. The various aspects and features of the different strategies are analyzed and discussed. Chattering reduction strategies are developed to improve the performance of sliding mode controllers. For a complete overview, control systems are compared using a performance factor that weighs control accuracy and effort in different driving maneuvers, i.e., ramp and step steering maneuvers performed under quite different conditions ranging up to the limits. Full article
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25 pages, 7128 KiB  
Article
A Dynamics Coordinated Control System for 4WD-4WS Electric Vehicles
by Shaopeng Zhu, Bangxuan Wei, Dong Liu, Huipeng Chen, Xiaoyan Huang, Yingjie Zheng and Wei Wei
Electronics 2022, 11(22), 3731; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11223731 - 14 Nov 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3935
Abstract
With the aggravation of the energy crisis and environmental problems, the new energy electric vehicle industry has ushered in vigorous development. However, with the continuous increase in car ownership, traffic accidents and other issues have gradually attracted widespread attention. Some existing stability coordination [...] Read more.
With the aggravation of the energy crisis and environmental problems, the new energy electric vehicle industry has ushered in vigorous development. However, with the continuous increase in car ownership, traffic accidents and other issues have gradually attracted widespread attention. Some existing stability coordination control systems often have problems, such as single stability judgment method and strong coupling between different subsystems. Therefore, based on previous research, it is necessary to further optimize the method of judging the vehicle’s stability state, establish clear coordination rules, and reasonably solve the coupling problem between subsystems. This is of great significance for promoting the further development of the electric vehicle industry. Due to four-wheel-distributed driving and four-wheel-distributed steering electric vehicles having the characteristics of integrated driving, flexible steering, and easy fault-tolerant control, it has unique advantages in improving vehicle stability and is a good carrier for designing and constructing the stability coordination control system. In this paper, four-wheel-distributed driving and four-wheel-distributed steering (4WD-4WS) electric vehicles are taken as the research object, and a coordinated control strategy of four-wheel steering and four-wheel drive is proposed. Firstly, in order to realize the accurate judgment of vehicle stability, based on the vehicle two-degree-of-freedom two-track model and magic tire model, this paper uses the phase plane law to divide the phase plane stability region of the vehicle and introduces the stability quantification index PPS-region for the evaluation of vehicle stability. Secondly, a fuzzy variable parameter active rear-wheel steering controller and a compensated yaw moment controller are designed. Then, for the coupling problem between the two controllers, a coordination rule is proposed based on the stability index PPS-region of the phase plane stability region. Finally, a hardware-in-the-loop testbed is built to verify the feasibility of the coordination control strategy proposed in this paper. Experimental results show that: When the vehicle is in different stable states, according to the divided steady state, the control strategy can be correctly switched to the corresponding control strategy, and the work of each subsystem can be reasonably coordinated. Under the continuous gain sine condition, the control algorithm can reduce the maximum amplitude of the yaw rate error response curve by 73% and the side slip angle error response curve by 85%. Compared with a single stability control system, the coordinated stability control algorithm can improve the control effect of yaw rate and side slip angle by 20% and 62.5%. In the case of double lane-change, the control algorithm can reduce the maximum amplitude of the yaw rate error response curve by 68.5% and the side slip angle error response curve by 57.4%. Compared with a single stability control system, the coordinated stability control algorithm can improve the control effect of yaw rate and side slip angle by 40.6% and 44.7%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fault Diagnosis and Control Technology of Electric Vehicle)
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19 pages, 7202 KiB  
Article
Integrated Chassis Control and Control Allocation for All Wheel Drive Electric Cars with Rear Wheel Steering
by Pai-Chen Chien and Chih-Keng Chen
Electronics 2021, 10(22), 2885; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10222885 - 22 Nov 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4555
Abstract
This study investigates a control strategy for torque vectoring (TV) and active rear wheel steering (RWS) using feedforward and feedback control schemes for different circumstances. A comprehensive vehicle and combined slip tire model are used to determine the secondary effect and to generate [...] Read more.
This study investigates a control strategy for torque vectoring (TV) and active rear wheel steering (RWS) using feedforward and feedback control schemes for different circumstances. A comprehensive vehicle and combined slip tire model are used to determine the secondary effect and to generate desired yaw acceleration and side slip angle rate. A model-based feedforward controller is designed to improve handling but not to track an ideal response. A feedback controller based on close loop observation is used to ensure its cornering stability. The fusion of two controllers is used to stabilize a vehicle’s lateral motion. To increase lateral performance, an optimization-based control allocation distributes the wheel torques according to the remaining tire force potential. The simulation results show that a vehicle with the proposed controller exhibits more responsive lateral dynamic behavior and greater maximum lateral acceleration. The cornering safety is also demonstrated using a standard stability test. The driving performance and stability are improved simultaneously by the proposed control strategy and the optimal control allocation scheme. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Systems and Control Application in Autonomous Vehicle)
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15 pages, 6271 KiB  
Article
Vehicle Dynamic Control with 4WS, ESC and TVD under Constraint on Front Slip Angles
by Jaewon Nah and Seongjin Yim
Energies 2021, 14(19), 6306; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196306 - 2 Oct 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3316
Abstract
To enhance vehicle maneuverability and stability, a controller with 4-wheel steering (4WS), electronic stability control (ESC) and a torque vectoring device (TVD) under constraint on the front slip angles is designed in this research. In the controller, the control allocation method is adopted [...] Read more.
To enhance vehicle maneuverability and stability, a controller with 4-wheel steering (4WS), electronic stability control (ESC) and a torque vectoring device (TVD) under constraint on the front slip angles is designed in this research. In the controller, the control allocation method is adopted to generate yaw moment via 4WS, ESC and TVD. If the front steering angle is added for generating yaw moment, the steering performance of the vehicle can be further deteriorated. This is because the magnitude of the lateral tire forces are limited and the required yaw moment is insufficient. Constraint is imposed on the magnitude of the front slip angles in order to prevent the lateral tire forces from saturating. The driving simulation is performed by considering the limit of the front slip angle proposed in this study. Compared to the case that uses the existing 4WS, the results of this study are derived from the actuator combination that enhances performance while maintaining stability. Full article
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22 pages, 31236 KiB  
Article
Risk-Sensitive Rear-Wheel Steering Control Method Based on the Risk Potential Field
by Toshinori Kojima and Pongsathorn Raksincharoensak
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(16), 7296; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11167296 - 9 Aug 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3407
Abstract
Various driving assistance systems have been developed to reduce the number of automobile accidents. However, the control laws of these assistance systems differ based on each situation, and the discontinuous control command value may be input instantaneously. Therefore, a seamless and unified control [...] Read more.
Various driving assistance systems have been developed to reduce the number of automobile accidents. However, the control laws of these assistance systems differ based on each situation, and the discontinuous control command value may be input instantaneously. Therefore, a seamless and unified control law for driving assistance systems that can be used in multiple situations is necessary to realize more versatile autonomous driving. Although studies have been conducted on four-wheel steering that steers the rear wheels, these studies considered the role of the rear wheels only to improve vehicle dynamics and not to contribute to autonomous driving. Therefore, in this study, we define the risk potential field as a uniform control law and propose a rear-wheel steering control system that actively steers the rear wheels to contribute to autonomous driving, depending on the level of the perceived risk in the driving situation. The effectiveness of the proposed method is verified by a double lane change test, which is performed assuming emergency avoidance in simulations, and subject experiments using a driving simulator. The results indicate that actively steering the rear wheels ensures a safer and smoother drive while simultaneously improving the emergency avoidance performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Motion Planning and Control for Robotics)
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18 pages, 9394 KiB  
Article
Hierarchical Synchronization Control Strategy of Active Rear Axle Independent Steering System
by Bin Deng, Han Zhao, Ke Shao, Weihan Li and Andong Yin
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(10), 3537; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10103537 - 20 May 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5038
Abstract
The synchronization error of the left and right steering-wheel-angles and the disturbances rejection of the synchronization controller are of great significance for the active rear axle independent steering (ARIS) system under complex driving conditions and uncertain disturbances. In order to reduce synchronization error, [...] Read more.
The synchronization error of the left and right steering-wheel-angles and the disturbances rejection of the synchronization controller are of great significance for the active rear axle independent steering (ARIS) system under complex driving conditions and uncertain disturbances. In order to reduce synchronization error, a novel hierarchical synchronization control strategy based on virtual synchronization control and linear active disturbance rejection control (LADRC) is proposed. The upper controller adopts the virtual synchronization controller based on the dynamic model of the virtual rear axle steering mechanism to reduce the synchronization error between the rear wheel steering angles of the ARIS system; the lower controller is designed based on an LADRC algorithm to realize an accurate tracking control of the steering angle for each wheels. Experiments based on a prototype vehicle are conducted to prove that the proposed hierarchical synchronization control strategy for the ARIS system can improve the control accuracy significantly and has the properties of better disturbances rejection and stronger robustness. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Mechanical Systems Dynamics 2020)
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12 pages, 1233 KiB  
Article
Electro-mechanical Differentials for Reduction of Self-generated Wind-up Torques in DBW AWD Propulsion Mechatronic Control Systems
by Bogdan Thaddeus Fijalkowski
World Electr. Veh. J. 2009, 3(3), 606-617; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj3030606 - 25 Sep 2009
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2091
Abstract
This paper deals with the concept of ‘passive’ and ‘active’ electromechanical (E-M) differentials in automotive mechatronics, in particular, for reduction of ‘self-generated wind-up torques’ in drive-by-wire (DBW) all-wheel-drive (AWD) propulsion mechatronic control systems. Self-generated wind-up torques are [...] Read more.
This paper deals with the concept of ‘passive’ and ‘active’ electromechanical (E-M) differentials in automotive mechatronics, in particular, for reduction of ‘self-generated wind-up torques’ in drive-by-wire (DBW) all-wheel-drive (AWD) propulsion mechatronic control systems. Self-generated wind-up torques are created by differing dynamic wheel-tire diameters, kinetic slip between front-wheel-drive (FWD) and rear-wheel-drive (RWD) units during cornering and kinetic slip between the driven wheels or steered, motorized and/or generatorized wheels (SM&GW) of one FWD or RWD unit. However, dissimilar transmission ratios for FWD and RWD units of a rigid DBW AWD propulsion mechatronic control systems, which also could create high self-generated wind-up torques, are usually not selected. The selfgenerated wind-up torques emerging in the DBW AWD propulsion mechatronic control system can only be reduced by power that linearly increases with the wheel angular speed. This power loss, in fact, cannot be utilized as tractive power for the all-terrain (on/off-road) all-electric vehicles (AEV), that is, battery electric vehicles (BEV) and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) as well as hybrid-electric vehicles (HEV). The generated power loss increases the electrical energy economy and/or specific fuel consumption (SFC), the wear and tear (W&T) of all DBW AWD propulsion mechatronic control system components, and the wheel-tire wear. Under extreme circumstances, over heating and overload can significantly moderate the fatigue life and lead to an early failure of all DBW AWD propulsion mechatronic control system components. Full article
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