Search Results (53)

The Spanish Constitution of 1978 recognizes the fundamental right of freedom of conscience and religion, the principle of equality and non-discrimination on religious grounds, and the principle of secularism and neutrality of the state. However, the legislative development of these principles is strongly stratified, and different levels of rights can be distinguished, depending on whether we are speaking about confessions with an agreement (Catholic Church, evangelicals, Jews, and Muslims), those with a mere declaration of well-known roots (Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Buddhists, Orthodox, and Bahá’ís), and the rest of the confessions merely registered in the Register of Religious Entities (Hinduism, Taoism, Sikhism, Church of Scientology, etc.). Only the Catholic Church has access to the income tax allocation, and only denominations with an agreement enjoy the main tax benefits, or religious teaching in schools. The declaration of notorious rootedness has very limited effects at present (recognition of marriage and the mere expectation of signing a cooperation agreement with the state, provided there is political will to do so). It is, therefore, necessary to opt for a model of common law, which is more neutral and applies equally to all religious groups. Full article

This paper discusses the Chart of the Taoist Rituals of Lord Lao, or “chart of Lord Lao” for short, a document drawn up, preserved, and utilized by a local Taoist altar in the border region of Hunan and Jiangxi provinces in southeastern China. This chart illustrates the body of the Most High Lord Lao (Taishang Laojun), with various parts labelled with sacred spaces, deity names in textual form, and ritual instructions. As such, the document elucidates the interconnectedness between the body, cosmos, and rituals within local Taoist beliefs. This article aims to analyze the chart of Lord Lao by comparing it with ritual texts, the liturgical tradition of the Taoist altar, and texts from the Ming dynasty Taoist Canon. Through this analysis, it becomes evident that the chart of Lord Lao and its associated practices reflect an intricate relationship between different layers of Taoist traditions. This includes the connections between classical Taoism and the emerging ritual traditions of exorcism during the Song and Yuan dynasties, as well as the interplay between these emerging traditions, such as the Correct Rites of the Heart of Heaven, and more local traditions of exorcism, such as the Rites of Mount Lü. Full article

The Seven Masters of the Quanzhen 全真七子 sect served as central figures during the founding phase of Quanzhen Daoism and played key roles in the sect’s early development. Originally positioned as the “Northern Seven Perfected Ones” (Bei Qi Zhen 北七真), they were instrumental in propelling the prosperity and expansion of Quanzhen Daoism. Over time, their images subsequently proliferated across various media—including portrayals in stone inscription, painting, biography, and novel, undergoing transformations through inscriptions, paintings, biographies, and novels—transforming transmission channels from Daoist temples to stage performances and from street corners to modern screens. In the Jin and Yuan 金元 periods, Daoist biographies and inscriptions portrayed the Seven Masters as exemplary figures of Daoist practice. In folk novels and precious scrolls (Baojuan 宝卷) in the Ming 明 and Qing 清 dynasties, they were presented as legendary, divine immortals and distant ancestors available for narrative appropriation. In modern times—particularly due to the popularity of Jin Yong 金庸’s martial art novels—they completed their universalization as Daoist cultural resources blending chivalric ethos and entertainment value. Examining the evolution of the Seven Masters’ imagery, two fundamental implications emerge: First, this transformation was jointly shaped by the power structures, functional needs, and media forms of each era. Second, beneath the fluid representations from sacred patriarchs of the Jin–Yuan period to modern entertainment symbols, there is an enduring thread of Daoist transcendental consciousness. Full article

The spread of Taoism to the Western Regions marked the movement of Central Plains culture to the frontier, demonstrating its influence on local society. During the Han Dynasty, Central Plains culture had reached the Western Regions. With the deification of Laozi and his becoming the founder of Taoism, the story “Laozi converting the barbarians” (Laozi huahu 老子化胡), which claimed that Laozi journeyed to the west and taught the Hu people, provided the impetus for the spread of Taoism to the Western Regions. The Tang imperial family venerated Laozi and regarded Taoism as the state religion. Laozi belief, including the veneration of the man himself, his writings, his stories, and the precepts claimed to be related to him, was also used to assist in the Tang Dynasty’s governance of the Western Regions. Following the Tang Dynasty’s decline, the Central Plains’ influence receded from the Western Regions. However, due to the relaxed religious environment in the Western Regions, Taoism, which was representative of Central Plains culture, still survived there. Moreover, Taoism attempted to incorporate Islam in the Western Regions into its divine system by huahu, which might be related to the early history of exchange between the two religions. Full article

The text Poxie lun:Daojing shijingfo wen破邪論:道經師敬佛文 (Treatise on Refuting Heresies: On the Respect of Taoist Scriptures for Buddha) records twenty-three items of “miscellaneous ancient records in Taoist scriptures” 道教古經古事雜抄. Half of these entries align with contents found in Dunhuang manuscripts and pertain to the practice of “replacing Buddhism with Taoism”. The Dunhuang manuscripts that involve the content of “replacing Buddhism with Taoism” can be categorized into five situations: First, Taoist scriptures that retain Buddhist terminology which was later replaced by later generations; Second, instances where traces of Buddhist terminology remain, showing signs of having been altered or replaced; Third, cases where the replacement of Buddhist terminology has already been completed in the manuscripts; Fourth, instances where, after replacing Buddhist terminology, the sentence structure was also revised; Fifth, sections that were preserved which, in later generations, were deleted due to their content relating to the blending of Buddhism and Taoism. These instances of “replacing Buddhism with Taoism” may reflect efforts by Taoism to remove Buddhist elements amid criticism or an attempt by Buddhist monks to preserve Buddhism’s sanctity by altering Taoist texts. The Dunhuang Taoist manuscripts offer vibrant historical material for discussing interactions between Buddhism and Taoism in medieval China. Full article

There are two main options for translating λόγος Logos in Chinese versions of John 1:1. One is to use 道Tào, which in this context means Wisdom and Creative Principle; the other is to use 言 Yán, which in this context means Holy Word. Our goal is to (1) give a historical overview of the first uses of 道Tao in the Protestant Bible and 言 Yan in the Catholic Bible and (2) discuss what has been lost, modified, or acquired by using Tao, both for Christianity and Taoism. Full article

This study focuses on Xizi-belief (惜字信仰) and provides a comparative analysis of the religious philosophies of Tianming (天命) and Tianli (天理), using the Hunan region as a case study. Through anthropological methods and fieldwork, this study explores how Classical Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism shape and guide word-cherishing behaviors based on the conceptual philosophies of Tianming and Tianli. The Tianming conception views characters as revelations of heavenly destiny. Through religious rituals, people cherish words to honor heaven and seek to change their destinies through heavenly forces, reflecting worldly desires and spiritual pursuits and emphasizing heaven with personhood. In contrast, the Tianli conception sees words as carriers of moral and natural laws. Guided by Confucian ethics and the concept of karma and retribution, it influences people’s moral norms and behavioral practices, reflecting the metaphysical moral law of a just and righteous heaven. Both conceptions not only involve the worship and protection of words but also profoundly embody a deep understanding and pursuit of the order of the universe, moral norms, the ethics of life, and the meaning of life. This study reveals three modes of influence: the religious philosophy integration model, the ritual practice model, and the architectural embodiment model. These models emphasize the positive impact of Xizi-belief on ethics and social life, prompting people to demonstrate positive guidance in human behavior through reverence for Tianming (mandate of heaven), adherence to Tianli (principle of heaven), and respect for nature. Under the guidance of classical religious ethical principles, the spread of Xizi-belief and the practice of Xizi religious ceremonies promote the harmonious development of individual virtues and social order, achieving harmony between humans and the universe. Full article

In his work The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven, Matteo Ricci not only criticized Buddhism and Taoism but also put forward the viewpoint that “Sanhanjiao is non-orthodox teaching”. The so-called Sanhanjiao actually refers to the three teachings into one established by Lin Zhaoen, so Ricci’s criticism of the three teachings into one, to some extent, is also a criticism of Lin Zhaoen’s “Three-in-One Doctrine”. Ricci used the argument “One Teaching cannot have Three Teachings” to criticize the view of “One Dao, Three Teachings” and also used “it is not possible to forcibly equate the Three Teachings” to criticize the theory of “the Three Teachings are the same”, bringing the perspective of the uniqueness of faith in Western religious culture to China. Ricci’s criticism of the three teachings into one is based on the premise of spreading Catholicism; his argument mainly relies on the logical reasoning of the Western way of thinking, thus ignoring the inherent characteristics of Chinese indigenous culture. However, his viewpoint at least broke the mainstream ideology of “the Unity of the Three Teachings” in the late Ming Dynasty and also provided significant inspiration for the intellectuals of the late Ming Dynasty to reflect on this trend. Ricci’s dialogue with Chinese indigenous religions did not erase the differences between their respective cultures, but actually promoted the integration between Chinese and Western cultures. Therefore, the significance of The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven lies not only in the dissemination of Catholic thought but also implies a dialogue and cultural transformation between different civilizations. Full article

“Inoperative Education as Drift Between Eastern and Western Philosophies” expands upon recent notions of “inoperativity” in educational philosophy in the West through an encounter with the Taoist philosophy of Zhuangzi. Thus far, the concept of inoperativity has largely been inspired by Giorgio Agamben, the contemporary Italian critical theorist. Educational theory has taken up inoperativity in order to rethink the school as a space of free time, the student as a studier, and the gymnastic body, to name only a few. Through a comparative, philosophical analysis, inoperativity is rethought in a decisively Taoist register in order to generate three movements of inoperativity: drift as use, drift as use of uselessness, and drift as deactivation of learning (un-learning). Full article

The Zhao Lun, authored by Seng Zhao, elaborates on the Madhyamaka thought. This work has had a significant impact on Chinese Buddhist philosophy, as well as on Confucianism and Taoism. During the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), the esteemed monk Wencai from the Huayan school of Buddhism composed a book titled A New Commentary on the Zhao Lun (hereafter New Commentary), which offers annotations and explanations for the text of the Zhao Lun and employs the “One Mind” theory to interpret the Zhao Lun. Text analysis methods are utilized in this article to conduct an in-depth study of the “One Mind” theoretical system constructed by Wencai within the New Commentary. It explores the essential content, integrative characteristics, and theoretical origins of the “One Mind” theory, thereby revealing the theoretical style of the Huayan school during the Yuan dynasty from a novel and unique perspective. Additionally, we analyze how Wencai integrates Tathāgatagarbha thought and Madhyamaka thought into his theory of “One Mind”. This analysis constitutes, to a certain extent, an indirect refutation of the harsh criticisms of Tathāgatagarbha thought of “Critical Buddhism” in Japan and provides new perspectives and reflections for a deeper understanding of Tathāgatagarbha thought. Full article

The Xizi Pagoda (惜字塔) is a form of traditional religious building used for burning “Paper with Characters (字纸)”, worshiping the gods, praying for blessings, revitalzing culture, and it is also an important material embodiment in the process of the development and evolution of religion in China, carrying China’s unique “Scholarly Culture (书香文化)”. This paper is the first study of the philosophy of religion of Xizi Pagodas (a vernacular stone religious architectural landscape). The research of the representative Xizi Pagodas in different parts of Hunan province were carried out to analyze the origin of Xizi Pagodas, cultural rituals, modeling paradigms, decorative art, and to explore the traditional Chinese religious and philosophical thoughts embedded in Xizi Pagodas through relevant literatures. The results show that Xizi Pagodas contain the religious concepts of “Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism (儒释道)”: the emergence of Xizi Pagodas is connected to the development of Confucianism; Xizi Pagodas incorporate Buddhistic thoughts and inherit architectural features of Buddhist Pagodas; and the “Xizi (惜字)” ritual and images of deities on Xizi Pagodas are associated with Taoism. At present, the number of Xizi Pagodas is decreasing, and the remaining ones are in a serious state of dilapidation and disrepair, and the “Xizi” Culture is gradually being forgotten and fading away. This paper enriches the relevant research on the Xizi Pagodas and the “Xizi” Culture. Full article

Zheng Guanying paid close attention to the issue of the spread of Christianity in China since his youth. Over a period of more than three decades, he produced five monographs specifically addressing Christianity, from unequivocally opposing the spread of Christianity in China in the mid-to-late 1870s, to advocating for the adoption of the preaching form of the Christian “gatherings every seven days” to disseminate the village covenants and sacred edicts among the Chinese people in the 1890s. He proposed that the Chinese people should hold the right to spread Christianity. In 1906, he advocated for the establishment of a “common religion” and proposed “one religion for all nations” to eliminate wars around the world. In his later years, he proposed the “Five great wishes” to integrate and govern the various religions of the world with Taoism as the core, attempting to reconstruct global order from the perspective of religious unity. He envisioned the establishment of a sacred Taoist monastery, the dissemination of religious concepts, and the cultivation of talents, which drew on the organizational structure and missionary methods of Christianity, reflecting the thinking and efforts of modern Chinese intellectuals to bridge the Chinese and Western civilizations, seek solutions for modern China, reconcile conflicts between China and the West, and pursue global unity. Full article

The Caodong School (曹洞宗) advocates the integration of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism (三教會通) and interprets Chan through the I Ching (以易釋禪). During the transition from the Ming to the Qing Dynasty, there was extensive interaction and mobility between the Ming loyalists (遺民) and Chan monks. This accelerated the secularization of monks and promoted the construction of temple gardens, which were expressed and preserved through literary Chan poetry. This study explores the relationship between Buddhist concepts and garden construction through a specific case, the Changshou Monastery Garden (長壽寺花園) in Canton (now Guangzhou) during the Qing Dynasty. This study examines how the Chan master Shilian Dashan 石濂大汕 (1633–1705), who journeyed to Dang Trong (Cochinchina 廣南) to spread Buddhist teachings, shaped the design and layout of the temple garden, reflecting Buddhist ideals and Caodong principles. This study analyzes the changes in landscape at the Changshou Monastery Garden, according to “the sound of tides” (潮音) from a Buddhist perspective. It also reveals how Dashan, as both a monk and a literati, blended Chan and Chinese philosophy in making the garden. The cultural resonance of tides within religious and literati traditions furnishes novel insights and prospects for the development of garden spaces. Full article

The development of precision agriculture requires unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to collect diverse data, such as RGB images, 3D point clouds, and hyperspectral images. Recently, convolutional networks have made remarkable progress in downstream visual tasks, while often disregarding the trade-off between accuracy and speed in UAV-based segmentation tasks. The study aims to provide further valuable insights using an efficient model named Taoism-Net. The findings include the following: (1) Prescription maps in agricultural UAVs requires pixel-level precise segmentation, with many focusing solely on accuracy at the expense of real-time processing capabilities, being incapable of satisfying the expectations of practical tasks. (2) Taoism-Net is a refreshingly segmented model, overcoming the challenges of complexity in deep learning, based on minimalist design, which is used to generate prescription maps through pixel level classification mapping of geodetic coordinates (the lychee tree aerial dataset in Guangdong is used for experiments). (3) Compared with mainstream lightweight models or mature segmentation algorithms, Taoism-Net achieves significant improvements, including an improvement of at least 4.8% in mIoU, and manifested a superior performance in the accuracy–latency curve. (4) “The greatest truths are concise” is a saying widely spread by ancient Taoism, indicating that the most fundamental approach is reflected through the utmost minimalism; moreover, Taoism-Net expects to a build bridge between academic research and industrial deployment, for example, UAVs in precision agriculture. Full article