Search Results (214)

This study analyzes the strategic and institutional frameworks that precede the formulation of trade agreements, with a focus on the European Union’s external action and its link to the Sustainable Development Goals. Based on a documentary research design, this study examines official documents from the EU and the United Nations, as well as the academic literature indexed in Scopus and Web of Science. The methodological process involved four phases: systematic search, selection and classification, inductive content coding, and interpretative analysis. Through this process, this study identifies discursive patterns, normative tensions, and policy orientations that reveal the EU’s evolving approach to sustainable trade governance. The findings highlight the existence of a growing institutional alignment between trade policy and sustainable development frameworks, yet also expose persistent gaps in coherence and implementation. This article contributes to the academic debate by offering a critical and structured analytical lens to understand how trade agreements are politically and institutionally prefigured before their negotiation phase. Full article

This article investigates the macroeconomic and labor market conditions that shape the adoption of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies among large firms in Europe. Based on panel data econometrics and supervised machine learning techniques, we estimate how public health spending, access to credit, export activity, gross capital formation, inflation, openness to trade, and labor market structure influence the share of firms that adopt at least one AI technology. The research covers all 28 EU members between 2018 and 2023. We employ a set of robustness checks using a combination of fixed-effects, random-effects, and dynamic panel data specifications supported by Clustering and supervised learning techniques. We find that AI adoption is linked to higher GDP per capita, healthcare spending, inflation, and openness to trade but lower levels of credit, exports, and capital formation. Labor markets with higher proportions of salaried work, service occupations, and self-employment are linked to AI diffusion, while unemployment and vulnerable work are detractors. Cluster analysis identifies groups of EU members with similar adoption patterns that are usually underpinned by stronger economic and institutional fundamentals. The results collectively suggest that AI diffusion is shaped not only by technological preparedness and capabilities to invest but by inclusive macroeconomic conditions and equitable labor institutions. Targeted policy measures can accelerate the equitable adoption of AI technologies within the European industrial economy. Full article

The European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) and its underlying market structure play a central role in the EU’s climate policy. This study analyses how the network of trading relationships within the EU ETS has evolved from a hub-dominated architecture to one marked by structural change and the emergence of new trading dynamics. Using transaction data from Phases I–IV, we apply complex network analysis to assess changes in connectivity, centrality, and community structure. We then construct a Digital Twin of the EU ETS, integrating graph neural networks and logistic regression models to simulate the entry of new participants and predict future trading links. The results indicate shifts in network composition and connectivity, especially in Phase IV, where regulatory innovations and institutional mechanisms appear to play a key role. While our analysis focuses on structural dynamics, these patterns may have broader implications for market performance and policy effectiveness. These findings underscore the importance of monitoring the evolving trading network alongside price signals to support a resilient, efficient, and environmentally credible carbon market. Full article

Urban areas are at the forefront in addressing global challenges such as climate change and biodiversity loss. Among the key responses are nature-based solutions, which are increasingly being integrated into policy frameworks but which require strong community engagement for their effective implementation. This paper presents the findings of surveys conducted within the Place Lab in Katowice, Poland, an initiative developed as part of an international project and used as a participatory tool for co-creating and implementing green infrastructure. The project applies both place-based and people-centred approaches to support European cities in their transition towards regenerative urbanism. Place Lab activities encourage collaboration between local authorities and residents, enhancing awareness and fostering participation in environmental initiatives. The survey data collected during the project allowed for the evaluation of changes in public attitudes and levels of engagement and for the identification of broader societal phenomena that may influence the implementation of nature-based solutions. The findings revealed, for instance, that more women were interested in supporting the project, that residents tended to be sceptical of governmental actions on climate change, and that views were divided on the trade-off between urban infrastructure such as parking and roads and the presence of green areas. Furthermore, questions of responsibility, awareness, and long-term commitment were frequently raised. Building on the survey results and the existing literature, the study proposes a set of indicators to assess the contribution of citizen participation to the adoption of nature-based solutions. While the effectiveness of nature-based solutions in mitigating climate change impacts can be assessed relatively directly, evaluating civic engagement is more complex. Nevertheless, when conducted transparently and interpreted by experts, indicator-based assessment can offer valuable insights. This study introduces a novel perspective by considering not only drivers of engagement but also the obstacles. The proposed indicators provide a foundation for evaluating community readiness and commitment to nature-based approaches and may be adapted for application in other urban settings and in future research on climate resilience strategies. Full article

Food safety concerns related to pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables have increased globally, particularly in regions where monitoring programs are scarce or inconsistent. This study provides the first multi-year evaluation of pesticide contamination and associated dietary risks in Cape Verde, an African island nation increasingly reliant on imported produce. A total of 570 samples of fruits and vegetables—both locally produced and imported—were collected from major markets across the country between 2017 and 2020 and analyzed using validated multiresidue methods based on gas chromatography coupled to Ion Trap mass spectrometry (GC-IT-MS/MS), and both gas and liquid chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (GC-QqQ-MS/MS and LC-QqQ-MS/MS). Residues were detected in 63.9% of fruits and 13.2% of vegetables, with imported fruits showing the highest contamination levels and diversity of compounds. Although only one sample exceeded the maximum residue limits (MRLs) set by the European Union, 80 different active substances were quantified—many of them not authorized under the current EU pesticide residue legislation. Dietary exposure was estimated using median residue levels and real consumption data from the national nutrition survey (ENCAVE 2019), enabling a refined risk assessment based on actual consumption patterns. The cumulative hazard index for the adult population was 0.416, below the toxicological threshold of concern. However, when adjusted for children aged 6–11 years—taking into account body weight and relative consumption—the cumulative index approached 1.0, suggesting a potential health risk for this vulnerable group. A limited number of compounds, including omethoate, oxamyl, imazalil, and dithiocarbamates, accounted for most of the risk. Many are banned or heavily restricted in the EU, highlighting regulatory asymmetries in global food trade. These findings underscore the urgent need for strengthened residue monitoring in Cape Verde, particularly for imported products, and support the adoption of risk-based food safety policies that consider population-specific vulnerabilities and mixture effects. The methodological framework used here can serve as a model for other low-resource countries seeking to integrate analytical data with dietary exposure in a One Health context. Full article

The intensifying global competition for cobalt resources and the increasing likelihood of trade decoupling and disruption are profoundly impacting the global energy transition. In a globalized trade environment, a decline in cobalt supply from exporting countries can spread through the trade network, negatively affecting demand countries. Quantitative analysis of the negative impacts of export supply declines in various countries can help identify early risks in the global supply chain, providing a scientific basis for energy security, industrial development, and policy responses. This study constructs a trade network using trade data on metal cobalt, cobalt powder, cobalt concentrate, and ore sand from the upstream (mining, selection, and smelting) stages of the cobalt industry chain across 155 countries and regions from 2000 to 2023. Based on this, an impact diffusion model is established, incorporating the trade volumes and production levels of cobalt resources in each country to measure their resilience to shocks and determine their direct or indirect dependencies. The study then simulates the impact on countries (regions) when each country’s supply is completely interrupted or reduced by 50%. The results show that: (1) The global cobalt trade network exhibits a ‘one superpower, multiple strong players’ characteristic. Congo (DRC) has a far greater destructive power than other countries, while South Africa, Zambia, Australia, Russia, and other countries have higher destructive power due to their strong storage and production capabilities, strong smelting capabilities, or as important trade transit countries. (2) The global cobalt trade network primarily consists of three major risk areas. The African continent, the Philippines and Indonesia in Southeast Asia, Australia in Oceania, and Russia, the United States, China, and the United Kingdom in Eurasia and North America form the primary risk zones for global cobalt trade. (3) When there is a complete disruption or a 50% reduction in export supply, China will suffer the greatest average demand loss, far exceeding the second-tier countries such as the United States, South Africa, and Zambia. In contrast, European countries and other regions worldwide will experience the smallest average demand loss. Full article

As global climate change intensifies and the transition to clean energy accelerates, lithium-ion batteries—critical components of electric vehicles—are becoming increasingly vital in international trade networks. This study investigates the structural evolution and determinants of the electric vehicle lithium-ion battery trade network among European Union (EU) member states from 2012 to 2023, employing social network analysis and the multiple regression quadratic assignment procedure method. The findings demonstrate the transformation of the network from a centralized and loosely connected structure, with Germany as the dominant hub, to a more interconnected and decentralized system in which Poland and Hungary emerge as the leading players. Key network metrics, such as the density, clustering coefficients, and average path lengths, reveal increased regional trade connectivity and enhanced supply chain efficiency. The analysis identifies geographic and economic proximity, logistics performance, labor cost differentials, energy resource availability, and venture capital investment as significant drivers of trade flows, highlighting the interaction among spatial, economic, and infrastructural factors in shaping the network. Based on these findings, this study underscores the need for targeted policy measures to support Central and Eastern European countries, including investment in logistics infrastructure, technological innovation, and regional cooperation initiatives, to strengthen their integration into the supply chain and bolster their export capacity. Furthermore, fostering balanced inter-regional collaborations is essential in building a resilient trade network. Continued investment in transportation infrastructure and innovation is recommended to sustain the EU’s competitive advantage in the global electric vehicle lithium-ion battery supply chain. Full article

Energy security is a global and strategic issue that is vital to national economic and social development. The conflict between Russia and Ukraine has profoundly changed the world’s energy trade structure and brought great challenges to global energy security, especially to the European Union (EU). Under this background, this study tries to construct a conceptual framework for energy security from trade and selects the EU as a case to analyze its energy security evolution at both the regional and national scales. The findings of this paper are as follows. (1) In the context of energy transition, oil and gas remain pivotal components due to their longstanding historical presence. However, they are also the most susceptible elements within the EU’s energy system. (2) The level of oil security within the EU is higher than that of natural gas. The level of oil security in member countries varies considerably, with significant geographic disparities. Aside from the exception of the Netherlands and Denmark, the majority of member countries exhibit a consistently low level of natural gas security. (3) From 1991 to 2021, the EU’s energy security pattern underwent significant changes, exhibiting a general downward trend due to the increased utilization of natural gas. In light of the aforementioned research outcomes, this paper seeks to offer policy recommendations for the enhancement of the EU’s energy security. Full article

The transformation of the energy market in Poland over the last 20 years has been a process deeply rooted in European Union policies and initiatives, including emissions trading (EU ETS), climate and energy packages and the European Green Deal. Poland, historically dependent on coal, continues to struggle with systemic problems such as low grid flexibility, ageing infrastructure, high CO₂ emissions and the socio-economic costs of the transition in mining regions. The research methodology is based on analysis of reports, scientific articles, EU documents and statistical data. So far, there is a research gap in the research area, mainly concerning two problems. The first is the lack of a multifaceted, integrated analysis of Poland’s energy transition, taking into account not only technological changes and RES participation, but also systemic problems (infrastructure, policy, social acceptance). The second, in turn, relates to the need to identify the impact of EU regulation as a driving force, not just an obstacle. The objective of the article is to provide a comprehensive analysis of the Polish energy market in the context of the EU over the past 20 years, covering (1) systemic problems of the Polish power sector, (2) the impact of key EU initiatives and regulations, (3) the development of renewable energy sources, (4) the modernisation and digitalisation of the grid, (5) current and future market trends, and (6) the main challenges of the transition. The analysis shows that Poland’s electricity sector is still dominated by coal, but its share is steadily decreasing, from ~85% in 2015 to about 60% in 2023. At the same time, the share of renewable energy sources (mainly wind and photovoltaics) has increased from ~10% to ~27%. Nevertheless, the gap with the EU average remains significant. Full article

This study conducts a macro-level comparative analysis of the eco-efficiency in the agricultural sectors of the European Union (EU) member states and Türkiye from 2003 to 2022. By treating countries as decision-making units, this research offers a holistic overview of how national-level inputs and outputs shape the aggregate performance, focusing on the trade-offs between economic value generation and environmental pressures. An input-oriented Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) model, based on Variable Returns to Scale (VRS), was employed. The model employs three inputs—compensation of employees (COE), energy consumption (EC), and gross fixed capital formation (GFC)—and two outputs—agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) and GHG emissions (GGEs). All variables were normalized by agricultural land area per country to account for scale differences. The findings reveal significant disparities in the eco-efficiency across countries and over time. Notably, Türkiye consistently demonstrated a high performance, frequently serving as a benchmark. In contrast, several Eastern European countries exhibited lower scores, suggesting significant room for structural improvement at the national level. The results point to the considerable potential for reducing energy and labor inputs in many countries. Instead of offering specific policy prescriptions, this study provides a diagnostic tool that identifies national-level performance gaps, informs policy discussions on resource allocation, and highlights priority areas for more detailed investigation. Full article

This study investigates the underexplored relationship between the shadow economy and environmental degradation and governance within the European Union, focusing on CO₂ and GHG emissions, and climate-related natural disasters, from 2012 to 2021. Employing both panel data econometrics and Elastic Net regularisation, the analysis reveals asymmetric effects: while a larger shadow economy is associated with lower reported GHG emissions, likely due to underreporting or less energy-intensive activities, it simultaneously increases vulnerability to climate-induced disasters. Furthermore, environmental taxes, although effective in mitigating emissions, show limited impact on disaster frequency, suggesting that fiscal instruments alone may be insufficient to foster climate resilience. Economic prosperity correlates with higher emissions and greater climate risk, highlighting a trade-off between growth and sustainability. The findings underscore the necessity of integrating informal economic activities into environmental governance frameworks, particularly in the context of the European Green Deal. Recognising and regulating the environmental footprint of the shadow economy is essential for achieving comprehensive and equitable climate goals. Future research should explore the role of institutional quality and fiscal transparency in moderating the environmental effects of informality. Overall, this study calls for a rethinking of climate policies to include both the formal and informal dimensions of economic activity. Full article

The Nutrition and Health Claims Regulation (NHCR) has introduced a new regulatory perspective in food manufacturing, along with influencing consumers’ perception of health-related food claims. Since 2006, a new standard of science-based claims has significantly impacted the European health food market. Over the years, numerous additional decisions have been made, and the ongoing process remains challenging for policymakers striving to harmonize consumer protection and trade within and outside the European Union (EU). This paper presents the current state of the NHCR’s implementation, along with key events aimed at enhancing understanding among consumer organizations and food industry stakeholders, while also offering an insider perspective on relevant policy issues. Additionally, we address two pertinent policy issues to elucidate the associated challenges and opportunities, providing insights to support informed decision-making by policymakers. We use the nutrient profiles framework as a case study to illustrate considerations underpinning the objective of “consumer protection”, while the “probiotics” market serves as an example for exploring the goal of “facilitation of trade”. This historical perspective and reflection lead us to propose possible solutions for future food regulation. Full article

Digitalisation plays a crucial role in enhancing the competitiveness of the global supply chain, primarily by improving trade openness and efficiency. The current study examined the impact of digital transformation on supply chains by analysing key digital and logistical factors over three Eastern European countries: Bulgaria, Poland, and Romania. Using multifactorial linear regression on data collected from 2013 to 2022, the present research paper evaluated and highlights the influence of broadband penetration, ICT graduates, and transport infrastructure over trade openness. The findings revealed a differentiated impact between the three analysed countries, such as a significant enhancement provided by broadband in Poland and Romania, ICT graduates having a low influence in Bulgaria, and air and rail transport not exhibiting a strong relationship with trade openness in all three countries. These results highlight the need for stronger policies that integrate the adoption of digital technologies, workforce development, and investment in infrastructure to enhance supply chain efficiency. Nevertheless, the present study contributes to the on-growing research trends over digitalisation’s role in trade and supply chain management while providing valuable insights for policymakers and business leaders in the current digital economy. Full article

Brexit, the exiting of the United Kingdom (UK) from the European Union (EU), has impacted socio-political relationships, both internally, and externally with other countries and economic groups. This has been especially true regarding international trade, and legal and market standards for food and food security. This paper examines how the enacting of Brexit has framed and underlined contemporary perceptions of the UK neoliberal food system, the relative importance of food standards, and the impact of policy transition on food security. Using a positional approach, perspectives and narratives within the literature are critiqued and synthesized, including academic sources, parliamentary debates, economic reports, and media analysis. The politico-economic effects of Brexit have altered food-related relationships, recalibrating trade interactions and changing the public funding that UK farmers receive. Through realigning extractive economic models, the pre-Brexit UK food system has been reset, and new perspectives about neoliberalism have emerged. Government intervention has steered away from traditional neoliberal framings towards neo-developmentalism. A dichotomy thus exists between recognizing the intrinsic right to adequate and nutritious food and maintaining existing cultural dynamics of food supply, and the use of agri-food policy as a politico-economic tool to drive higher economic growth. The implications of this policy change are stark for UK agri-food actors within food system transition post-Brexit. Full article

Sri Lanka, then known as Ceylon, was ruled by three Euro-Christian colonisers for over 450 years. Alongside their pursuit of trade and wealth, these colonial powers—the Portuguese (1505–1658), Dutch (1658–1796), and British (1796–1948)—sought to establish their distinct forms of Christianity: Catholicism by the Portuguese, Reformation by the Dutch, and Anglicanism and other Protestant denominations by the British. The missionary strategies and religious policies of these European colonisers varied significantly. Unlike Catholicism, which closely aligned with the external rituals of local religions such as Buddhism and Hinduism, the Dutch Reformed religion emphasised Christian doctrine and biblical scripture, distinguishing itself in its liturgy, art, and architecture. This paper examines the origins and development of Dutch Reformed urban church architecture in Sri Lanka through archival, cartographical, and morphological research, complemented by an architectural survey of the surviving Dutch Reformed churches. The study reveals that the Dutch initially repurposed several Portuguese churches for Reformed worship, and later, they introduced the “Meeting House” typology, aligning with Reformed ecclesiastical and liturgical principles. Over time, this evolved into larger “Greek Cross Plan” churches, a trend that continued until the rise of Anglicanism. Full article