Search Results (74)

From the mid-Ming to early Qing dynasties, Mount Jizu 雞足山 in Yunnan achieved unexpected prominence within China’s Buddhist sacred landscape—an event of regional, national, and transnational significance. Employing an explicit comparative lens that juxtaposes Jizu with China’s core-region sacred sites like Mount Wutai and Emei, this study investigates the timing, regional dynamics, institutional mechanisms, and causal drivers behind the rapid ascent. Rejecting teleological narratives, it traces the mountain’s trajectory through four developmental phases to address critical historiographical questions: how did a peripheral Yunnan site achieve national prominence within a remarkably compressed timeframe? By what mechanisms could its sacred authority be constructed to inspire pilgrimages even across vast distances? Which historical agents and processes orchestrated these transformations, and how did the mountain’s symbolic meaning shift dynamically over time? Departing from earlier scholarship that privileges regional and secular frameworks, this work not only rebalances the emphasis on religious dimensions but also expands the analytical scope beyond regional confines to situate Mount Jizu within national and transnational frameworks. Eventually, by analyzing the structural, institutional, and agential dynamics—spanning local, imperial, and transnational dimensions—this study reveals how the mountain’s sacralization emerged from the convergence of local agency, acculturative pressures, state-building imperatives, late-Ming Buddhist revival, literati networks, and the strategic mobilization of symbolic capital. It also reveals that Mount Jizu was not a static sacred site but a dynamic arena of contestation and negotiation, where competing claims to spiritual authority and cultural identity were perpetually redefined. Full article

In late imperial China, a type of painting known as “panoramic maps” (shengjing tu 聖境圖, literally “sacred realm maps”) depicted Buddhist sacred sites. Often surviving as woodblock prints, examples from Mount Wutai and Mount Putuo are particularly representative. Previous research has often viewed these images as pilgrimage guides or focused on the relationship between pictorial perspectives and actual geography. This study centers on panoramic maps of Mount Wutai and Mount Putuo, examining both vertical and horizontal layouts, to offer a preliminary understanding of this genre. This study argues that: (1) Unlike urban maps, panoramic maps emphasize significant monasteries and landscape features, incorporating local legends and historical narratives, thus possessing strong narrative qualities. (2) These images likely functioned as pilgrimage souvenirs. Diverging from practical roadmaps, their primary goal was not strict realism but rather to convey the site’s sacredness and associated information through landscape painting conventions, allowing viewers to perceive its sacredness. (3) The woodblock print medium facilitated affordable reproduction, accelerating the circulation of the sacred site’s significance among the populace and aiding in its promotion. This research contends that the panoramic maps primarily function as folk landscape paintings reflecting the sacred site, capable only of approximating the relative positions of features. The widespread adoption of late-period woodblock printing enabled the low-cost reproduction and dissemination of the sacredness inherent in these Buddhist landscapes, constructing idealized spatial representations shaped by religious belief and geomantic principles. Full article

This paper examines how Daoxuan 道宣, the Tang Dynasty Buddhist historian and founder of the Nanshan Vinaya School, meticulously constructed the saintly image of Sengya 僧崖—a monk renowned for his auto-cremation—in his Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks (Xu gaoseng zhuan 續高僧傳). Drawing on a range of sources—including the now-lost Biography of the Bodhisattva Sengya and regional texts such as the Collection of Miscellaneous Records from the Shu Region—Daoxuan reconfigured Sengya’s narrative, presenting his auto-cremation as a profound religious sacrifice emblematic of transformative spiritual commitment. The analysis explores how Daoxuan navigated the doctrinal tensions between this extreme practice and the Vinaya precept of non-killing by emphasizing the practitioner’s mental state over the physical act. In doing so, he reframed self-immolation not as an aberration but as a legitimate, even exalted, path to liberation. This reinterpretation is situated within the broader context of Chinese Buddhist thought—particularly the ideas of the indestructibility of the spirit and the cosmological framework of “Heaven–Man Correspondence”—highlighting the interplay between religious symbolism, doctrinal adaptation, and lived practice. Crucially, this paper treats Daoxuan’s narrative not merely as biography, but as hagiography—a literary mode in which historical memory and religious narrative are inextricably entwined. By examining the rhetorical and ideological dimensions of this genre, this study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of how religious hagiography functioned as a tool for shaping sainthood, authorizing extreme religious practices, and negotiating the spiritual and social landscapes of medieval China. Full article

Yangzhi jingshui 楊枝淨水 (willow twigs and clean water) are part of one of the most popular rituals used in Chinese Buddhist practices. In order to preserve dental health and eliminate bad odors, the Vinaya texts specify rules on chewing willow twigs as a form of tooth brushing in one’s daily facial washing process. Willow twigs are also frequently employed in Esoteric (mijiao 密教) rituals, where they are accompanied by spells to create intricate ceremonies that have the power to heal illnesses, ward off bad luck, and bring about happiness and tranquility. For the development of this ritual in China, the usage of yangzhi jingshui was not originally connected to any particular deity, but later on, the ritual became primarily linked to Avalokitêśvara (Guanyin, 觀音), who was believed to use them as crucial tools for healing and saving lives. The symbolic meaning of using willow and water has been thoroughly discussed by Master Zhiyi 智顗 (538–597) and then has since developed into the more complete Repentance Practice of Guanyin (Guanyin chanfa 觀音懺法). Using yangzhi jingshui to save people as well as trees is also an important aspect described in Buddhist biographies and Chinese novels, such as Gaoseng zhuan 高僧傳 [The Biographies of Eminent Monks], Song Gaoseng Zhuan 宋高僧傳 [Biographies of Eminent Monks in the Song Dynasty], and stories of collected in Taiping guangji 太平廣記 [Extensive Records of the Taiping (xingguo) Period], Lunhui Xingshi 醒世輪回 [Reincarnation Stories to Awaken the World], and Xiyou ji 西遊記 [Journey to the West], which all demonstrate the rich cultural significance of this ceremony. Through the narratives of monks, the worship of Yangliu Guanyin, and its portrayal in the literature, yangzhi jingshui evolved from a cleansing tool in scriptures to a ritual object in Esoteric Buddhist healing ceremonies, ultimately becoming a common Buddhist practice. While new elements were added over time, its core themes of healing and purification have remained consistent. Full article

Zen/Chan Buddhism, as a profound spiritual tradition, has witnessed the emergence and development of a unique phenomenon known as “老婆禪 Granny Chan”, which is deeply intertwined with the spiritual pursuits of Buddhist women throughout history. This proposed research aims to expound and interrogate the hidden treasures of Zen wisdom amassed by these remarkable women, thereby shedding new light on the often-overlooked contributions within the Zen domain. To begin with, by scouring ancient Zen texts, anecdotes, and historical records, we will trace the roots and evolutionary path of “Granny Chan”. These sources are replete with accounts of nameless “grannies” engaging in profound dialogs and encounters with Zen masters. Their sharp insights and spontaneous responses during dharma exchanges, as exemplified in classic koans like “婆子點心 The Granny’s Dimsum” and “婆子燒庵 The Granny Burning the Hermitage”, reveal a depth of understanding that belies their marginalized status in traditional religious narratives. Subsequently, this study will focus on dissecting the distinct ways in which their Zen wisdom was manifested within the cultural context of Zen. Their approach, characterized by simplicity, directness, and a deep connection to life’s realities, not only added a refreshing dimension to Zen teachings but also subtly challenged the male-dominated paradigm prevalent in the religious fields. By highlighting these expressions, we can appreciate how Buddhist women’s insights became an integral part of Zen’s cultural fabric. In the contemporary context, this research holds multiple implications. It serves as a corrective to the historical neglect of Buddhist women’s spiritual achievements, providing a source of inspiration and empowerment for modern female practitioners. Moreover, it prompts a rethinking of gender equality within religious traditions, advocating for a more inclusive and equitable recognition of women’s roles in the Zen community and beyond. Overall, through the exploration of “Granny Chan”, we anticipate contributing to a better understanding of Zen Buddhism’s historical, cultural, and spiritual dimensions, bridging the gender gap and enriching the ongoing discourse on religious wisdom. Full article

One of the basic features of shamanic rituals cross-culturally in East and Southeast Asia is that the ritual itself is structured as a journey up to the sky, climbing the world mountain or the world tree, or else a journey down to the bottom of the sea and back again. The shamanic retinue is understood to make this journey in person, rather than, as in Daoist ritual, sending divine emissaries up to the highest heavens. The journey is conducted through narrative song and dance, accompanied by strings of bells and lutes. The point of departure is the physical village or village household where the ritual is being conducted, and the journey progresses through a series of well-marked way stations via the temple of the earth god to the higher hills and finally to the villages and markets in the sky, before crossing the heavenly seas and ascending the highest mountain. On the way, demons and other impediments are encountered. The route and way stations vary depending on the purpose of the ritual and the intended divine recipient of offerings and submissions. The present article will explore the route up to the sky and the way stations in more detail, taking a single ritual type as performed by the Pụt and Then ritual practitioners as an example. The Pụt and Then are literate ritual specialists found among the Tày and Nùng peoples in northern Vietnam and southern China, near an area which is known to have been a centre of Brahmanical and Buddhist learning from very early times. Full article

The ancient oasis of Turfan, located on the Northern Silk Road, was a centre for interactions between the East and the West and witnessed numerous cultural, religious, and linguistic changes throughout history. A large number of texts were composed, translated, copied, and published there. One of the outcomes of these efforts is the Old Uyghur Buddhist narrative literature, parts of which have remained almost completely preserved, while a significant portion has survived as single fragments or small pieces of a fragment. For some of these texts, definitive conclusions about their original content or which work they belong to have yet to be reached. The Old Uyghur Bāvari narrative discussed in this study bears parallels, particularly in terms of themes, settings, and characters, with sections of the Pārāyaṇasūtra—known for its resemblance to the final chapter of the Sutta Nipāta, i.e., the Pārāyanavagga—as well as parts of the Maitreyasamitināṭaka and Xianyujing. This study first introduces this narrative formed by the Old Uyghur fragments preserved in the Turfan Collection of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences. Then, the text is transcribed and translated. Finally, the similarities and differences with other parallel narratives are analysed and presented. Full article

This article delves into the perception of monastics from Larung Gar Buddhist Academy of Western China concerning the intertwining relationship between Buddhism and science, along with the impact of this perception on their worldview and life trajectory. Many monastics at Larung Gar Buddhist Academy initially held a high regard for science, dismissing Buddhism as superstition. However, upon gaining a comprehensive understanding of Buddhism through various opportunities, they came to believe that certain tenets of Buddhism are compatible with science, even suggesting that Buddhism could address some of the methodological and epistemological limitations of science and offer solutions to some issues that science is unable to resolve. This ultimately led them to embrace Buddhism and renounce worldly life. This study employs a case study to investigate the understanding of the relationship between Buddhism and science amongst the general public in contemporary China, an area underexplored by previous scholarship that predominantly concentrated on the philosophical scrutiny of the apologetic discourses towards the reconciliation between Buddhism and science of influential Buddhist ascetics and lay practitioners. Also, this study endeavors to demonstrate that despite the ongoing secularization of contemporary Chinese Buddhism in the “public sphere”, within the “private sphere” of Chinese Buddhism, there remain individuals who are pursuing the religious, sacred, and transcendental dimensions of Buddhism. Full article

This paper explores the savior narratives of the Messiah in early Judaism and Maitreya in Buddhism focusing on the structural and thematic similarities between the two savior figures. Through an analysis of the Hebrew Bible, Talmud, and Buddhist texts such as Ārya Maitreya-Vyākaranam (The Prophecy of the Superior Maitreya) and Anāgata-vaṃsa (The History of the Future), the study examines four key elements of these narratives: the bestowal of the savior’s divine identity, the tribulations of the end times, the fulfillment of the savior’s mission and the role of “virtuous individuals” in redemption. The research highlights how both saviors are portrayed as future redeemers tasked with guiding humanity to redemption, while also emphasizing the moral requirements for believers in both religions. Specifically, the analysis reveals a “dual-redemption paradigm”, wherein both the savior’s mission and the moral actions of followers are essential to achieving redemption. The study also examines the balance between the divine and secular aspects within the narrative structure, illustrating how historical figures have manipulated these narratives for political and social gains. This research aims to deepen the understanding of savior traditions in Judaism and Buddhism, foster inter-religious dialogue, and contribute to comparative religious philosophy. Full article

This study explores the thematic and structural parallels between William Shakespeare’s Othello and the Sambulā Jātaka (519) from ancient Buddhist literature. Through a detailed narratological analysis, this study examines the narrative structure, narrator and narrative perspectives, focalization, temporal aspects, and narrative techniques employed in both texts. By investigating how each narrative addresses themes of sexual jealousy, trust, and human frailty, this paper highlights the universal nature of these emotions and their impact across two cultural contexts. This study employs the qualitative approach of research analyzing the texts, Othello and the Sambulā Jātaka, as a sample representing two larger canons. The analysis reveals that both genres utilize the narratological aspects to reveal the destructive nature of most of the above underlying emotions, bringing them to the surface and creating a powerful resonance that transcends time and geography. This comparative study underscores the timeless relevance of these narratives and their shared exploration of the complexities of human relationships and the destructive power of irrational suspicions. Full article

Samguk yusa 三國遺事 (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms), compiled by Iryŏn 一然 (1206–1289), a prominent Buddhist monk in Koryŏ, stands as one of Korea’s most valued historical classics. This classic weaves together a collection of captivating and unconventional narratives—marked by their peculiarity, miracles, and wonder—diverging from the usual societal norms. Unlike traditional historical chronicles such as Samguk sagi 三國史記 (Histories of the Three Kingdoms), Samguk yusa presents a diverse mosaic woven with historical anecdotes, legends, and folklore, especially emphasizing connections to Buddhism. The tales of miraculous events hold historical significance, serving as reflective mirrors that not only shaped the beliefs of pre-modern Korean Buddhists but also influenced the wider population of that era in Korea. This paper delves into the cultural significance and societal roles of miracles and wonders within pre-modern Korean society, particularly through a thorough exploration of narratives and accounts within the Samguk yusa. Through these miraculous stories, the Samguk yusa not only validates the spiritual power of Buddhism but also redefines concepts like filial piety and national protection by integrating them into the Buddhist framework. This ensured Buddhism’s enduring significance in Silla society and reinforced the importance of the supernatural as an integral part of a holistic view of history and culture. Full article

The Daitokuji Old Collection’s 500 Luohans Paintings 五百羅漢圖, painted by Southern Song Mingzhou 明州 artists Lin Tinggui 林庭珪 and Zhou Jichang 周季常, have become a focal point in recent studies on the Chinese Buddhist material culture of the Song Dynasty. Among the 500 Luohans series, five paintings are related to the ancient Indian legend of Emperor Aśoka’s creation of 84,000 stupas. These paintings include “Building a Stupa” (No.78), “King Aśoka Stupa Emitting Light” (No.79), “Precious Stupa on the Rock” (No.80), and “Miracle of Light-Emitting Relics” (No.81), which are currently housed in the Daitokuji 大德寺 in Kyoto, Japan, and “Luohans Watching the Relics’ Light” (B5), which is housed in the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, the US. However, the way in which the “King Aśoka Stupa” 阿育王塔 and “Relics’ Light” 舍利光 series were integrated into the overall visual narrative of the 500 Luohans in the Daitokuji and Boston collections, as well as the profound meanings and social-cultural contexts embedded in these images, have been rarely studied in depth. The introduction of the miraculous relics theme into the Daitokuji Old Collection’s 500 Luohans Paintings originates from an earlier version by the monk Fa Neng. However, Fa Neng’s version recorded by the Northern Song literati Qin Guan 秦觀 does not mention the King Aśoka Stupa. The artists had considerable freedom in depicting miraculous relic phenomena and King Aśoka Stupa. The specific details of King Aśoka Stupa’s background in Tiantai Mountain 天台山, such as rock bridges, waterfalls, and rock caves, as well as the craftsmanship of King Aśoka Stupa, reflect particular contemporary ideas. The vivid depictions of the “King Aśoka Stupa” and “Relics’ Light” in the Daitokuji Present Collection and the Boston Collection of the 500 Luohans may indicate a close connection between the creation of these images and the fervent Relics Worship at King Aśoka Temple 阿育王寺 in Mingzhou during Southern Song. This paper synthesizes these images, ancient Chinese and Japanese manuscripts, and fieldwork insights to interpret the sources and significance of these images. Full article

This article explores the issues of phenomenon and genesis in Early Buddhist thought through a comparative analysis with the Eleatic tradition, aiming to enrich the understanding and dialogue between these philosophical and religious traditions. By examining the comparability of Buddhist thought and Parmenidean philosophy, the study challenges the notion that these traditions are fundamentally alien to each other. The focus is on the concept of genesis, not as creation from nothingness—rejected by both the Buddha and Parmenides—but as the manifestation of the world to the human observer. The article argues that the world reveals itself in particular forms and appearances, which are intimately linked to the phenomenon and its perception by humans. This process is not solely a domain of rigid logical propositions but can be expressed through mythological and religious narratives. The study posits that the poetic expressiveness found in archaic philosophies of both India and Greece provides a valid medium for engaging in philosophical discourse. By adopting this comparative and dialogical perspective, the article aims to generate new philosophical insights and inspire future philosophical inquiry. The reflection on phenomenon and genesis, framed through this comparative lens, highlights the nuanced ways in which different traditions address the nature of reality and human perception, ultimately advocating for a broader, more inclusive understanding of philosophy that transcends conventional boundaries. Full article

The Sutra of the Buddha’s Mother (Fomu jing 佛母經), a Chinese Buddhist scripture, is closely linked to the Mahāmāyā Sutra (Mohe Moye jing 摩訶摩耶經). However, there is a significant difference between the two sutras regarding the narrative story of the Buddha’s nirvana and meeting with his mother, namely the difference in the disciple who travels to Trāyastriṃśa Heaven to inform the Buddha’s mother. The substitution of Aniruddha with Upāli could be attributed to Upāli’s inclusion in Tang dynasty commentaries on “Ānanda Asking the Buddha Four Questions,” where he is depicted as a prominent disciple in the gathering prior to the Buddha’s nirvana. This narrative preference was also reflected in the Mohe Moye jing. To a certain extent, this confusion reflects the process of ‘between translation and composition,’ or the compiling and mixing of various texts from different sutras and sources to create a new scripture in the Chinese context. In the nirvana images, which contain the inscriptions, the presence of Upāli becomes an important symbol for identifying the classical texts on which the frescoes were painted. Full article

This article explores the apologetic discourse towards the convergence between Pure Land Buddhism and theoretical physics of the contemporary Chinese Buddhist monk, Da An (1959- ). Faced with the formidable challenge posed by contemporary science towards public acceptance of Buddhism, Da An endeavors to employ science as a medium for propagating Pure Land teachings, seeking to accommodate the preferences of scientifically inclined individuals. He utilizes several theoretical physics concepts to validate that certain ostensibly miraculous accounts within Pure Land Buddhist texts are not incompatible with contemporary science. Further, he asserts that certain supernatural narratives therein indicate that some physical principles still residing in theoretical conjectures on Earth have already been validated and can be utilized at will by the celestial beings in Sukhāvatī, thus asserting the supremacy of Pure Land teachings over science. The article endeavors to examine the contemporary dialogue between Pure Land Buddhism and science, which has been overlooked in the current research realm of the interaction between Buddhism and science. Full article