Bridging the Shakespearean and Jataka Narratives: A Narratological Analysis of Othello and Sambulā Jātaka (519)

Abstract

This study explores the thematic and structural parallels between William Shakespeare’s Othello and the Sambulā Jātaka (519) from ancient Buddhist literature. Through a detailed narratological analysis, this study examines the narrative structure, narrator and narrative perspectives, focalization, temporal aspects, and narrative techniques employed in both texts. By investigating how each narrative addresses themes of sexual jealousy, trust, and human frailty, this paper highlights the universal nature of these emotions and their impact across two cultural contexts. This study employs the qualitative approach of research analyzing the texts, Othello and the Sambulā Jātaka, as a sample representing two larger canons. The analysis reveals that both genres utilize the narratological aspects to reveal the destructive nature of most of the above underlying emotions, bringing them to the surface and creating a powerful resonance that transcends time and geography. This comparative study underscores the timeless relevance of these narratives and their shared exploration of the complexities of human relationships and the destructive power of irrational suspicions.

1. Introduction

Two seemingly distinct yet comparable traditions have expanded world literature from opposite corners of the globe: Shakespearean drama from the West and Buddhist Jataka stories from the East. While separated by geography, language, and cultural context, both traditions are renowned for their compelling narratives, subtle characterizations, and profound insights into the human condition. A closer examination of the two genres reveals fascinating parallels and resonances between these narrative forms despite their apparent differences.

This study involves an exploration of Shakespearean drama and Jataka narratives through a narratological analysis of two seminal works: William Shakespeare’s Othello and the Sambulā Jātaka (519). By analyzing these two texts as a sample, this study endeavors to highlight the narrative strategies, character dynamics, and thematic elements utilized to convey themes, evoke emotions, and engage audiences across cultural and temporal boundaries. Thus, this study aims to analyze the underlying similarities and differences in the seemingly divergent traditions in terms of the narrative techniques employed in the two.

In selecting Othello and the Sambulā Jātaka as the sample for this analysis, we recognize the significance of these texts within their respective traditions. Othello, one of Shakespeare’s most celebrated tragedies, is mainly written around a trustworthy wife and suspicious husband, exploring themes of sexual jealousy, deception, and the destructive power of suspicion. Meanwhile, the Sambulā Jātaka also recounts the story of a trustworthy woman and a suspicious husband, illustrating moral lessons about truth, trust, and the consequences of suspicion and sexual jealousy. Despite their differing contexts and cultural origins, both narratives offer profound insights into universal aspects of the human experience. Further, even though Othello and Sambulā Jātaka are categorized as a play and a tale, respectively, both contain homogeneous and heterogeneous narrative characteristics that can be compared and contrasted in an academic study. Accordingly, by examining how these texts convey issues of trust, deception, and sexual jealousy, this study explores how complex moral and existential dilemmas across diverse cultural contexts are conveyed in narrative forms.

2. Literature Review

This section includes a general survey of the literature related to theoretical and empirical studies in terms of narrative structures related to Shakespearean drama and Buddhist Jataka stories.

Both Jataka stories and Shakespearean plays represent two major genres in world literature prose, narrative and drama, respectively, and they both convey significant themes using a wealth of different literary techniques to claim niches in the domain of classical literature. Accordingly, both works carry the attributes of classical literature in terms of aesthetic value.

Othello in Shakespeare’s great repertoire is an excellent tragedy dealing with the breakdown of romantic relationships (Bradley 2007, p. 3).

Even though the Jataka stories have a rich literary value, they are still not yet recognized as classical literature and have not received the place received by Othello in the arena of “mainstream” literature. Noam Appleton highlights that the Jataka stories illustrate the Buddha’s exceptional skills as both a visionary and storyteller. While these narratives primarily serve to convey moral lessons concerning the functioning of karma and the cultivation of the pāramitās (perfections) necessary for the attainment of Buddhahood, they hold significant cultural importance in various Buddhist countries, where they have inspired a rich tradition of literature, theatre, opera, and other art forms (Appleton 2024). As the above scholars illustrate, both Shakespearean drama and the Jataka tales represent an important place in the realm of classical literature. The current corpus, represented by Othello and the Sambulā Jātaka, sets the stage for a detailed analysis in terms of their narratology. Both stories revolve around tragic events arising from jealousy and suspicion. However, the reactions and responses to these events differ significantly in each narrative.

Being a genre of serious literature produced in Eastern culture, the Jataka stories represent a classical medium of entertainment and education bound to expose the behavior of the human mind in diverse situations. The authentic use of a wealth of literary features helps to consolidate their place in the domain of classical literature that can be ranked with high-quality works from any part of the world. This can be supported by Malalasekara’s claim that the Jatakas possess ‘poetic features of the structure, content, form arrangement, and language which would match away the complication of stories in any language or literature’ (Malalasekara 1996, p. 19).

The Jatakas in the Jātakatthavaṇṇanā form the largest collection of Theravada Jataka stories, consisting of 547 tales, commonly rounded to 550. These stories are presented in a combination of verse and prose. Each story follows a structured format, beginning with a ‘story of the present,’ where the Buddha explains the reason for recounting a particular past life. This is followed by the ‘story of the past,’ which typically contains the verse portion. The narrative concludes with a ‘connection,’ in which the Buddha identifies the characters with the people in the current birth including himself as a key character in the story (Appleton 2024). Thus, the literary value of the Jatakas is significant, as confirmed by Appleton, who regards them as ‘worthy of serious academic study’ and considers them exemplary works of religious literature (Appleton 2007, p. 118). The writer tailors the narrative and dramatic techniques to appeal to different interests and intellectual levels across various segments of society. Similarly, while Shakespeare’s Othello, based on Giraldi Cinthio’s Gli Hecatommithi, is categorized as a tragic play (Bradley 2007), its narrative elements are not inferior to those found in the Jataka tales. Accordingly, this article examines the narratological value of the two literary works, prioritizing literary analysis over their historical context, and explores them from two distinct perspectives.

2.1. What Is Narratology?

Genette presents three meanings for narrative. Firstly, the narrative can be ‘the oral or written discourse that undertakes to tell an event or a series of events’ (Genette and Lewin 1980, p. 25). Secondly, the narrative refers to ‘the succession of events, real or fictitious’, and thus the analysis of a narrative means this study of the ‘totality of actions and situations’ (Genette and Lewin 1980, p. 25). Thirdly, the story is narrated by someone.

Structuralism introduces a narrative as having two parts: ‘the story (histoire), the content or chain of events (actions, happenings), plus what may be called the existents (characters, items of setting); and a discourse (discours), that is, the expression, how the content is communicated’ (Chatman 1978, p. 19).

Considering these definitions, a narrative can be defined as a succession of events, actions, and situations, whether real or fictitious. Thus, in this analysis, we seek to analyze the two genres based on this definition of a narrative.

However, when considered as a narrative discourse, the focus is the study of relationships in a narrative text (Genette and Lewin 1980, p. 26). This current study is also related to narrative discourse as it involves a textual analysis of the relationships within the narrative texts. Thus, the analysis of narrative discourse involves studying the relationships between narrative and story, narrative and narrating, and story and narrating. Even though narrative and story are sometimes used interchangeably, a narrative requires a sequencing of events, meaning it unfolds over time rather than existing as static signs, images, or material objects. Unlike a narrative, a story does not just recount events; it aims to discover meaning in them by connecting them through a plot (Gabriel 2004). As explained in the previous section, simply, the narration is ‘the communicative act of telling a story’ (Ribó 2019, p. 65), and the narrating is telling a story by a narrator to a narratee. Thus, the story is what is being told. Narration is how it is being told (Ribó 2019, p. 66). In this context, analyzing the tense (time), aspect, and mood of the text becomes crucial for understanding narrative discourse (Genette and Lewin 1980, p. 29).

Tzvetan Todorov, a structuralist, introduced the term narratology, which emphasizes the analysis of the plot’s structure and textual organization within a text (Bal 2004, p. 10). According to Todorov’s narratological theory, a narrative typically unfolds in five stages—equilibrium, disruption, realization, repair, and restoration—which often occur cyclically (13–14).

2.2. Narratology in Literature Research

Studies have applied Genette’s and Todorov’s theories of narratology in different capacities. For instance, a study applied Genette’s theory of narratology in an analysis of time in “A Rose for Emily” by William Faulkner (Ahmadian and Jorfi 2015, pp. 215–24). Todorov’s theory has been successfully applied in a study analyzing equilibrium in the ‘Panji Story’ (Taum 2018). Another study has analyzed the short story “The Pool” by rigorously applying Gerard Genette’s categories, namely, mood and voice (Govindarajulu and Koperundevi 2010).

A study analyzing the central role of narrative as a speech act in Othello finds that the characters construct narratives throughout the play. Othello recounts four incidents to Desdemona during his wooing, which ultimately create conflicts and propel the plot (Macaulay 2005). Based on Labov’s narrative pattern, Othello’s image as a hero is initially presented to the audience. However, as the play reveals his race and subsequent behavior, this heroic image is altered (Pablos 1996).

Jatakas represent the style of Eastern narration that is specific to them. The writer retains the traditional narrative style of storytelling in writing the stories. Vidya Dehejia, discussing the visual narratives of Jatakas, mentions that a visual narrative revolves around three elements: the protagonists, space, and time. She identifies six types of visual narratives in Jatakas that can be suited to different settings. The written version of Jatakas also contains various narrative structures that are specifically identified under storytelling (Dehejia 1990). Visual narratives explore visuals that tell stories (Pimenta and Poovaiah 2010). Among other terms, narrative art, visual storytelling, films, pictorial stories, illustrated stories, comics, sequential art, history painting, and animation are familiarly synonymous. However, while the above research refers to the historical paintings of Jatakas, the current research refers to the narratological analysis of the texts.

This general literature survey indicates that, while Othello is an acclaimed piece of world literature with numerous research studies available, only a few focus on its narratology. In contrast, no studies on the narratology of the Jataka tales have been identified. Moreover, a study comparing the narratology of these two pieces of literature has not been found. This research aims to address this gap.

3. Methodology

This current study employs a comparative textual analysis of the two texts as a sample to investigate the narrative structures utilized in the two genres. After analyzing the texts, the narrative techniques used in conveying the themes and human emotional experiences were categorized and coded under broader themes such as narrative structure, narrator and narrative perspectives, focalization, temporal aspects, and narrative techniques. The findings of this study are reported under these themes derived from the analysis. Further, while this study was underpinned by the narratological theories of Genette and Todorov, comparative methods were also used in the discussion of the findings. Thus, this current study belongs to the qualitative approach of research.

4. Discussion

4.1. Narrative Structure

The narrative is an essential technique in a play because the dramatic illusion is repeatedly broken through narrative intrusion, spectacle, and other sudden disturbances of the aesthetic distance (Mowat 1978, pp. 254–55). Further, the narrative is well effectuated with the support of both the narrator and the listener. In Shakespearean plays, the narrators are strongly voiced, whereas the listeners are hardly analytical, making them magically accept the narrations. In the plays, the tragic consequences of believing narratives, ‘accepting too casually their constructed or unexamined evidence, are averted by reinterpreting the evidence’ (Wilson 1995, p. 143). This claim fits Othello well.

One of the most influential theories of analyzing narratives is Gustav Freytag’s narrative arc, which includes narrative elements such as exposition, climax, and resolution or denouncement (Boyd et al. 2020).

Othello follows the five-act structure typical of Renaissance drama, with some alterations to the sequence of events (Wilson 1995). The first act sets the stage with Desdemona’s elopement with Othello, serving as both the exposition and the inciting incident. This act introduces the main characters and their defining traits, crucial for the plot’s development. The key events in the first act include Roderigo’s infatuation with Desdemona; Iago’s sadistic nature and his desire for revenge against Othello for promoting Cassio to lieutenant; and Iago’s manipulation of Roderigo, convincing him to poison Brabantio against Othello by revealing Desdemona’s marriage. These incidents reveal Iago’s deceit and cunningness, Roderigo’s gullibility and naiveté, Desdemona’s innocence and virtue, Cassio’s honesty and loyalty, and Othello’s valor and self-esteem. Together, these elements lay the groundwork for the unfolding drama.

For when my outward action doth demonstrate

The native act and figure of my heart

In compliment extern, ’tis not long after

But I will wear my heart upon my sleeve

For daws to peck at; I am not what I am.

(Act I, scene i)

The self-explanation Iago conveys in these lines prepares the audience to experience his villainy in the following acts. The lines show how cunningly he exploits the defined features of the other characters to achieve his target. Thus, the audience is exposed to each character’s major qualities, which helps the audience to understand their significance for the plot. Act II prepares the ground for the crisis in which Iago executes the first part of his plot by getting Cassio drunk and urging him into a brawl with Roderigo as he had planned before. Iago cunningly makes Othello find Cassio guilty of the brawl, and Othello, betraying his inexperience and lack of analytical skills, dismisses Cassio on Iago’s insinuation. Disguised in a façade of honesty, Iago gets Cassio to appeal to Desdemona to plead with Othello to reinstate Cassio to his previous position:

Till I am evened with him, wife for wife…

Or, failing so, yet that I put the Moor

At least into a jealousy so strong

That judgment cannot cure;

(Act II, scene I)

Moreover, Iago’s scheme to destroy Othello, which is conveyed in the above words, marks another landmark in the development of the plot. The plot starts moving towards its tragic climax at the beginning of Act III with Iago’s instigation of Othello to suspect Cassio and Desdemona to be secret lovers. He implants the very first seeds of jealousy in Othello through an interjection that sounds casual—‘Ha, I like not that’ (Act III, scene iii). From this point onwards, Iago continues to fuel Othello’s jealousy with various fabrications, including telling Othello about Cassio’s mutterings of Desdemona’s love in his sleep. These manipulations erode Othello’s confidence, culminating in the crisis of the play and reinforcing his suspicions. Thus, Othello’s love quickly turns into hatred—‘All my fond love thus do I blow to heaven…!’ (Act III, scene iii)—and he vows to take revenge on Desdemona and Cassio for violating his trust: ‘Arise, black vengeance, from thy/hollow cell!’ (Act III, scene iii). These words suggest that, by this time, he is thoroughly convinced of Desdemona’s infidelity.

Desdemona’s loss of the handkerchief, a gift from Othello, along with her persistent pleas for Cassio’s reinstatement, serve as apparent proof to Othello of her alleged infidelity, intensifying the crisis. In Act IV, the falling action begins as Iago capitalizes on Othello’s mental state, continuing his deception. He provokes Cassio to boast about his romantic encounters with Bianca, leading Othello to mistake Bianca for Desdemona and interpret Cassio’s words as a lustful confession of a secret relationship with Desdemona. Othello then sees the handkerchief in Bianca’s possession, which he takes as the ‘ocular proof’ (Act III, Scene iii) he sought. Grief-stricken, enraged, and driven by vengeance, Othello resolves to kill both Cassio and Desdemona, dividing the responsibility: Iago will kill Cassio, and Othello will murder Desdemona. In Act V, the plot accelerates towards its tragic end. Othello murders Desdemona in her bed after subjecting her to verbal torture. When Iago’s wife Emilia realizes her role in the disaster, she exposes Iago’s plots to Othello, prompting Iago to kill her. However, Emilia dies content, having cleared Desdemona’s name. Othello, realizing his folly and betrayal by Iago, stabs Iago, who escapes only injured. Othello then stabs himself, marking the resolution of the play. His death is the catastrophe, resolving the central conflict and completing the tragedy. The dénouement comes through Lodovico’s final lines, informing the audience that Gratiano will inherit Othello’s possessions and Cassio will oversee Iago’s punishment. These events, occurring in Venice and Cyprus over a short period, demonstrate Shakespeare’s use of the double time theory to create a complex narrative flow. Thus, the intricate plot of Othello can be effectively analyzed through Freytag’s narrative structure pyramid, illustrating the exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution.

The Sambulā Jātaka was preached in a discussion of Queen Mallikā to illustrate her devotion as a wife in past lives, addressing the theme of wifely devotion with sexual jealousy running parallel, as in Othello. At the beginning of the story, the characters are introduced, emphasizing Queen Sambulā’s physical beauty as a result of her kusala (wholesome) karma from previous lives, and her loyalty to King Sotthisena. Despite living in the forest, Sambulā remains devoted, attending to the king during his fatal illness. The story reaches its climax when Sambulā is captured by a goblin while searching for fruit. Her delay ignites the king’s suspicion of her being unfaithful, marking the conflict’s onset and his psychological turmoil. The crisis intensifies with the king’s harsh treatment of Sambulā, born from his baseless suspicion and sexual jealousy. The dénouement occurs when Sambulā performs an Act of Truth to prove her faithfulness, which leads to the king’s recovery. Despite regaining his kingship, the king, in his pursuit of pleasure, forgets Queen Sambulā and finds solace with other consorts, provoking Sambulā’s jealousy. This sets the stage for another crisis, resolved by the king’s father, who makes the king recognize his wrongdoing. Ultimately, the story concludes on a happy note, demonstrating that sexual jealousy is a natural impulse that can affect anyone, regardless of their status. However, those who engage in wholesome activities, like Queen Sambulā, will overcome their jealousy and achieve positive outcomes.

An analysis of Othello and the Sambulā Jātaka through Freytag’s dramatic arc reveals their narrative complexity and thematic depth, despite originating from vastly different cultural backgrounds. Both stories follow the classic structure of exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution, demonstrating the universal nature of storytelling. Both narratives explore themes of sexual jealousy, trust, and fidelity, highlighting the consequences of unchecked emotions and the redemptive power of truth and devotion. By applying Freytag’s dramatic arc, we can appreciate the structural similarities and thematic resonances that link these two timeless tales, underscoring the enduring power of classical narrative forms across different cultures.

4.2. Narrator and Narrative Perspectives and Focalization

Gerard Genette’s narratological concept distinguishes between two key agents in a narrative: the narrator and the focalizer (Genette and Lewin 1980). The narrator is the entity that tells the story, while the focalizer is the one whose perspective shapes how we experience the story. This distinction creates a dichotomy, because readers find themselves divided between the stance of the narrator and the viewpoint of the focalizer (Beyad and Nemati 2006). Even though the narrator is the final verbalizer of the story, the audience’s perspective is shaped by how the narrated events and situations are perceived, felt, and conceived (Toolan 2001).

Shakespeare introduces storytellers to his plays, and, in Othello, he chooses a few characters to narrate the prominent incidents in the story (Davis 1999). Despite very effective amendments made to the narrative sources that Shakespeare based his plays on, the narrative characteristics pervade in different modes in the plays. For instance, Desdemona’s intense attraction to Othello’s narrations about war and adventures—‘…She would come again, and with a greedy ear/Devour up my discourse…’ (Act I, Scene iii)—and the senators’ high impression of how Desdemona and Othello claim their love illustrate the narrative skills of the playwright. This narration employs a limited omniscient perspective, where the narrator knows only a little about the characters. The external focalization ensures that the narrator describes observable actions and dialogues without revealing the characters’ inner thoughts and feelings. Despite these constraints, the narration at the beginning of the play is effective in creating a highly positive impression of the characters involved. It is through narration that Shakespeare juxtaposes Iago and Othello from the very beginning of the play, voicing Iago with vulgarities and Othello with the highly refined usage of the language. It is ironic when Iago condemns Othello for his lack of refinement with filthy words, while Othello’s narration would win the Duke’s daughter as well. Thus, with the implications of all these narrative techniques, Shakespeare highlights the immateriality of class, society, upbringing, etc., for jealousy. Every minute incident as such has a great impact on the plot. Iago’s special capacity to present facts and arguments and convince others contributes greatly to the success of the play. Among the characters who variously support the development of the plays through their narratives, Iago is the cleverest and captures many listeners attracted to him. Further, for Shakespeare, narrative entrapment seems fascinating because it exemplifies the duplicity, the power, and also (hence “antithetical” to the other uses of the same story) ‘the bothersome openness of the narrative’ (Greenblatt 1989, p. 12). As a result, narratives perform multiple functions in a play. Shakespeare uses soliloquies to reveal the minds of the characters. In Act I, Iago soliloquizes his plans to destroy Othello out of jealousy, revealing his true nature to the audience, while the other characters remain unaware. These soliloquies not only expose Iago’s ulterior motives but also illuminate the psychological suffering of the characters, thereby contributing to the plot and highlighting the subtlety of sexual jealousy. Othello’s soliloquy just before killing Desdemona reveals his deep psychological conflict. It marks the climax of Iago’s villainous machinations, with Othello’s jealousy ultimately leading to the tragic end of Desdemona. These soliloquies, as a part of the narrative, contribute to disturbing the dramatic illusion through narrative intrusion, spectacle, and other sudden disturbances of aesthetic distance. The narrative is effectively supported by both the narrator and the listener. In the plays, the narrators are strongly voiced, while the listeners are rarely analytical, leading them to accept the narrations uncritically. The tragic consequences of believing these narratives—accepting too casually their constructed or unexamined evidence—can be averted by reinterpreting the evidence (Wilson 1995).

The narrator in the Sambulā Jātaka is an external, third-person omniscient narrator. This narrator provides a comprehensive view of the characters and events, including their thoughts, feelings, and motivations. The narrator is also identified as the Buddha (the Master) in the frame story, recounting the tale to his followers, which gives an additional layer of authority and moral context to the narrative. There are moments of internal focalization where the narrative zooms into the inner world of the characters, revealing their thoughts and feelings. For instance, when Sambulā laments her situation in the forest, addressing the natural elements such as sages, lions, tigers, plants, and mountains, with “no grief to me that I should be this hateful ogre’s prey, but that the love of my dear lord from me should fall away”, we experience her inner turmoil directly through her words. Her soliloquy reveals her thoughts and emotions, especially her sorrow at the possibility of losing her husband’s love. This gives us direct access to her inner world, focusing on her emotional state and her loyalty to her husband despite the dire circumstances. Further, Sotthisena’s psychological conflict and doubts are depicted through internal focalization. After Sambulā’s return from the encounter with the goblin, Sotthisena’s doubt and suspicion are expressed as, “With womenkind it is hard to discover the truth... Who shall believe you?” This moment offers focalization through Sotthisena, revealing his internal distrust and jealousy. Despite Sambulā’s proven loyalty, he questions her truthfulness, showcasing his irrationality and insecurity. The narrative largely employs external focalization, describing observable actions, settings, and dialogues without delving deeply into the internal states of the characters at all times. The narrator describes the actions of Sambulā as she attends to Sotthisena, the encounter with the goblin, and the subsequent events in a detailed and descriptive manner. Thus, the story employs a multi-layered narrative technique with both internal and external focalizations. The external, third-person omniscient narrator provides a broad and authoritative view of the entire narrative, while internal focalization offers deeper insights into the character’s emotions and motivations at key moments. The use of soliloquies and direct speech serves to reveal the true nature and intentions of the characters, such as Iago’s machinations in Shakespeare’s Othello. In this Jataka tale, Sambulā’s soliloquies and laments expose her unwavering loyalty and suffering, which are pivotal for the plot and for eliciting empathy from the audience. Overall, the combination of internal and external focalizations, along with the authoritative third-person omniscient narration, creates a rich and multi-dimensional storytelling experience that effectively conveys the themes of loyalty, suffering, and moral righteousness.

In this way, employing different narrators, narrative perspectives and focalizations can change within a story, shifting from one character’s perspective to another’s, thereby providing different viewpoints and insights into the narrative. This dynamic use of focalization helps in creating a multifaceted and layered understanding of the story.

4.3. Temporal Aspects

Time is manipulated differently to increase the dramatic effect of any narrative (Caldas 2008). According to Genette, temporal aspects cover order, duration, frequency, chronological time, and other aspects (Genette and Lewin 1980). Techniques like flashbacks (analepsis); flash-forwards (prolepsis); the relationship between narrative time and story time; and singulative, repetitive, and iterative events are commonly used by both the writer of the Jataka tales and Shakespeare.

The Sambula Jātaka operates within two temporal frameworks: the time of the storytelling and the time within the story itself. The frame story occurs in the present moment of the Buddha and his disciples, while the embedded tale is set in a distant, mythic past. The narrative smoothly transitions between these two temporalities of the past story and the present story, creating a layered temporal structure. The framing narrative, where the Buddha recounts the past lives of his disciples, serves as a form of analepsis (flashback), taking the audience back to a previous birth. The story shifts its temporal focus from the present to the past and to the future, contributing mainly to convey morality. The frame narrative where the Buddha speaks to his disciples is set in the present, linking the past events to the present lessons and the virtues of Queen Mallikā. Implicitly, the story also points to the future consequences of present actions, emphasizing the karmic outcomes that extend beyond the immediate narrative. The pacing varies throughout the story as there are some actions that flow rapidly, slowly, and moderately. While the initial setup and the transition from the kingdom to the forest are narrated rapidly to move the plot forward, the encounter with the goblin and the Act of Truth are slowed down to enhance dramatic tension and emphasize their importance. The resolution and the return to the kingdom are narrated at a moderate pace, wrapping up the narrative while providing closure.

In contrast, Othello unfolds in a relatively short time frame, intensifying the dramatic tension. The action of the play spans a few days to a week, with events progressing rapidly, heightening the sense of urgency and impending tragedy.

Even though the Jataka follows a unique temporal structure, featuring a present story and a past that spans through eons in the cycle of birth, the play adheres to a linear chronological order, with most of the events unfolding sequentially. From Othello and Desdemona’s secret marriage to the tragic culmination, the plot moves forward without significant flashbacks or temporal disruptions. However, the characters’ recollections and references to past events, such as Othello’s courtship of Desdemona and Iago’s alleged grievances, provide background and context, subtly integrating past events into the present narrative. The play shifts its temporal focus to emphasize different aspects. For example, the main focus is on the present, with the events unfolding in a continuous flow, emphasizing the immediacy and urgency of the unfolding tragedy. Shakespeare employs a unique theory of double time to create a complex narrative flow, with events in Venice and Cyprus unfolding over a seemingly short period. Unlike the Jataka, this technique allows the play to maintain a swift pace while accommodating the depth and development of the characters and the plot. The characters frequently refer to past events to justify their actions and emotions. Othello speaks of his past adventures to woo Desdemona, and Iago references past slights to rationalize his revenge. The play often hints at future consequences through the characters’ dialogues and soliloquies, building a sense of foreboding and anticipation of the tragic end. The initial acts, particularly the elopement and the subsequent move to Cyprus, have rapid pacing to quickly establish the main conflict and setting. The middle acts, where Iago’s schemes unfold and tensions rise, maintain a moderate pace, allowing for the development of suspense and character dynamics. The key dramatic moments, such as Othello’s confrontation with Desdemona and his soliloquies, are slowed down to heighten the emotional intensity and allow for deep character exploration. The final act accelerates towards the climax, with events unfolding rapidly, leading to the tragic resolution.

The temporal aspects of Othello are skillfully managed to create a sense of urgency, build dramatic tension, and enhance the emotional impact of the narrative. The linear progression of time, combined with the strategic use of other techniques, ensures a focused and intense storytelling experience. By varying the pacing and integrating references to the past and anticipations of the future, Shakespeare crafts a tragedy that is both immediate and timeless, emphasizing the destructive power of jealousy and deceit within a compressed, high-stakes time frame. Likewise, the temporal aspects of the Sambula Jātaka are complex and multifaceted, involving the careful manipulation of the narrative time, chronological order, duration, frequency, temporal focus, and pacing. These temporal techniques serve to enhance the moral and dramatic impact of the story, linking past actions with present lessons and future consequences. The interplay between the frame narrative and the embedded tale creates a rich, layered temporal structure that underscores the continuity of virtue, karma, and moral lessons across lifetimes. Both the Jataka and Othello are didactic in their portrayal of the destructive nature of sexual jealousy. In the Sambula Jātaka, Sambulā, despite her piety, suffers from the consequences of sexual jealousy when Sotthisena neglects her in favor of other women. Similarly, in Othello, sexual jealousy culminates in murder, with tragic consequences for the victims. However, their responses to sexual jealousy differ, likely influenced by their distinct cultural, social, and religious norms. While Sambulā manages her feelings without causing harm to anyone, Othello is driven to the extreme of murdering Desdemona. Additionally, both narratives highlight the functioning of karma. The Jataka explicitly demonstrates how individuals face the consequences of their actions, offering a moral lesson on karma. For instance, Queen Mallikā’s devotion in a past life leads to her rebirth as Sambulā, who benefits from her piety, virtue, and devotion in her current birth. Her extraordinary beauty, ability to perform the Act of Truth, receiving help from Sakka when helpless, and ultimately resolving her issues with the assistance of her father-in-law are all portrayed as the karmic fruits of her moral deeds. Similarly, Othello explores the immediate effects of karma (ditta dhamma vedaniya kamma), where both Othello and Iago swiftly face repercussions for their actions after Desdemona’s murder. These characters exhibit their desire for women and worldly pleasures, which ultimately leads to suffering, as highlighted in the Buddha’s teachings. Both Othello and Sotthisena fall prey to sensual attachment and jealousy, demonstrating how unbridled desire can result in destructive consequences. The Buddha’s doctrine emphasizes that craving (tanha) and attachment to sensual pleasures are fundamental causes of suffering, a theme clearly reflected in both narratives. Their downfall underscores the moral lesson that unchecked desires lead to personal and communal suffering, aligning with the Buddhist perspective on the causes of suffering.

4.4. Narrative Techniques

Various literary techniques have been effectively employed by the writers of these two genres to manipulate the narrative effect in the two effectively. Among such devices, symbolism, imagery, irony, soliloquy, and register have been employed by the writers to enhance the narrative effect (Ohia 2023).

Shakespeare’s manipulation of symbolism ensures the smooth narration of the play; the handkerchief, the first gift of Othello to Desdemona serves as the ‘ocular proof” of Desdemona’s alleged infidelity. Desdemona always keeps it with her as a symbol of Othello’s love and intimacy. Othello claims that his mother used it to keep his father faithful to her, so, to him, the handkerchief is a symbol of marital fidelity. The pattern of strawberries ‘…dyed in mummy, which the skilful/Conserved of maiden’s hearts’ (Act III, scene iv) on a white background strongly suggests a virgin’s bloodstains left on her wedding sheets, so the handkerchief implicitly suggests a guarantee of virginity and chastity, as well as fidelity. Othello’s jealousy is highly aggravated, putting him on a path of murderous revenge when he sees it in Bianca’s hand at a time when he is looking for an ‘ocular proof’. He says, ‘I will chop her into messes. Cuckold me!’ (Act IV, Scene i), because he is highly convinced of her infidelity. Thus, such a small object plays an enormous role in the play, appealing to the sensitivity of jealous minds and the way that small incidents can be magnified psychologically into ‘proofs’ of love or betrayal. The Jataka story writer also effectively employs symbols to convey the themes of virtue and infidelity. As Shakespeare highlights Desdemona’s virtue and fidelity in Othello, the Jataka story similarly portrays Sambulā’s unwavering loyalty and moral strength. Sambulā’s radiant beauty and exemplary behavior symbolize her purity, virtue, and inner beauty. Despite enduring hardships, she retains a spiritual radiance that transcends physical appearance, embodying the power of moral integrity. When she encounters a goblin in the forest, who attempts to seduce her, the goblin becomes a symbol of temptation, danger, and lust. Even though her husband, Sotthisena, is afflicted with leprosy and physically incapable of fulfilling her needs, Sambulā remains steadfast in her loyalty, never compromising her virtue. The goblin represents the worldly desires that test her moral and spiritual resolve, challenging her fidelity. Sotthisena, in a moment of mistrust, doubts Sambulā’s faithfulness. In response, she performs an Act of Truth, a powerful symbol of purity and devotion in Buddhist literature. This Act of Truth, which miraculously heals Sotthisena’s leprosy, symbolizes the moral power that arises from loyalty, truthfulness, and selfless devotion, underscoring the story’s emphasis on inner virtue over outward appearances. Sotthisena’s father, who appears as an ascetic to rescue Sambulā from the suffering caused by his sexual jealousy, symbolizes the role of religion in alleviating human suffering. In contrast, Othello, lacking such a source of guidance or emotional control, succumbs to his jealousy and kills Desdemona.

The song “Willow” that Desdemona and Emilia sing on their deathbeds is about a woman who has been betrayed by her lover. To them, the song seems to represent melancholy and the resigned acceptance of their alienation from their husbands, while to the audience it is symbolic of their untimely deaths. This scene is made to be very emotional and sympathetic, exposing the extreme innocence of Desdemona, who in her wedding gown anticipates a lovable union with her husband. Thus, it is highly ironic and traumatic that her wedding bed becomes her deathbed. The double setting of the play, starting from Venice and moving into Cyprus, where all the critical incidents continue amidst the political and natural commotions, symbolizes the internal torture of the protagonist caused by jealousy. The stormy uncertainty of Desdemona’s and Othello’s arrival in Cyprus and the victory over the Turkish fleet create a suitable atmosphere for the moral uncertainties to come. The tension is maintained since Cyprus is in a state of military readiness, in need of defense, and demanding alertness and judgment from its defenders. Moreover, Venice, where all the characters including Othello are highly respected, is regarded to be a noble law-abiding civil society, whereas Cyprus, where all the characters are degraded and suffer from psychological chaos, symbolizes lawlessness and disorder. While Othello condemns Desdemona’s love and women as a whole, Sotthisena in the Sambulā Jātaka similarly doubts and condemns Sambulā. He does not believe her words and extends his condemnation to all women.

You jades are ever by far too clever,

Truth among such is a great rarity,

Ways of the sex are enough to perplex,

E’en as the course of a fish in the sea.

(p. 52)

Both men are irrationally suspicious, and their suspicion is mingled with sexual jealousy. The writers bring these emotions to the surface using symbols and imagery.

Shakespeare very effectively uses irony, with different forms of it throughout the narration. The dreadful irony of Othello’s belief that he ‘would never make a life of jealousy’ (Act III, scene iii) is soon played on the stage for the audience. His jealousy has been merely awakened just by Iago’s wordplay proving his deep-rooted insecurities to the audience in contrast to his suggestion that he would not lose confidence without rational proof. Even though he mentions, ‘I’ll see before I doubt, when I doubt, prove,/And on the proof there is no more but this:/Away at once with love or jealousy!’ (Act III, scene iii), trying to convince that his judgments are based on rational thinking that is not guided by what he hears, tragically and ironically just the opposite happens when being subjected to jealousy quite irrationally. He uses dramatic irony effectively to reveal Iago’s pretensions with which Iago impresses other characters as a man of honesty. When Iago and Cassio talk about Bianca, the audience knows that Iago’s purpose of getting Cassio’s confessions to his association with Bianca is to be followed by Othello’s as related to Desdemona. Further, the audience knows Othello’s plot to murder Desdemona but, till the last moment, Desdemona has no suspicion about that. Thus, the strongest piece of dramatic irony that plays throughout the play is the fact that the audience knows Desdemona’s innocence, Iago’s crookedness, Cassio’s honesty, and Othello’s follies, but, in the play, except Iago, all the other characters know nothing but Iago’s honesty.

There is a double irony involved in Othello’s speculation of a discrepancy between Desdemona’s appearance and what he alleges she is. This appears as a feature of human experience in a more human sense, while being persuaded to believe in the inevitability of his fate:

Yet ’tis the plague of great ones,

Prerogative’d are they less than the base,

’Tis destiny, unshunnable, like death:

Even then this forked plague is fated for us

When we do quicken

(Act III, scene iii)

As a result, he also accepts the dubious wisdom of Iago’s later pronouncement that Desdemona’s apparent deception is a hellish joke at humanity’s expense:

O, ’tis the spite of hell, the fiend’s arch-mock

To lip a wanton in a secure couch,

And to suppose her chaste

(Act IV, scene i)

In this manner, the words of the deceiver and the deceived resonate, achieving dramatic irony. The most prominent situational irony in the play is that both Iago and Othello wish for Cassio’s death, but, in the end, he is the only survivor and the one promoted while all the others are dead.

Iago many times uses different forms of sarcasm and irony to enlighten the reader of his villainous plans without having to uncover his plot to the other characters, thereby making the play much more convincing. Furthermore, he is the best example of someone who knows how to use verbal irony most appropriately to deceive others in order to achieve his selfish target. Everything he says is always the opposite of what he really means. He says to Othello, ‘My lord, you know I love you’ (Act III, scene iii) and ‘I am your own forever’ (Act III, scene iii) and to Roderigo, ‘You, Roderigo! Come, sir, I am for you’ (Act I, scene iii), which are a few examples of the verbal irony that Iago uses to cheat them.

Irony plays a significant role in the Sambulā Jātaka, especially in relation to the themes of sexual jealousy and virtue. After being healed by Sambulā’s devotion, Sotthisena ironically doubts her account of the goblin encounter and accuses her of deception. The irony lies in the fact that Sambulā, despite her unwavering loyalty and selflessness, is distrusted by the very person whose life she saved. This reversal of trust highlights the unjust suspicion she faces despite her virtuous actions. Sotthisena’s treatment of Sambulā after his recovery is another poignant example of irony. While she devotedly cares for him in his time of need, he neglects and ignores her once he regains his health, instead indulging in the company of other women. His ingratitude and disregard for her sacrifices create an ironic contrast between her steadfastness and his selfishness, amplifying the tragic reversal in their relationship. The greatest irony, however, lies in Sotthisena’s doubt. Though he questions Sambulā’s truthfulness, it is her Act of Truth that miraculously heals his leprosy. The power of truth that Sambulā embodies starkly contrasts with Sotthisena’s baseless suspicion, further highlighting the moral dissonance between her virtue and his irrational jealousy.

Shakespeare uses soliloquies to reveal the minds of the characters. In Act I of Othello, Iago soliloquizes his plans to destroy the Moor out of his jealousy. That reveals his true nature to the audience while other characters remain unaware of it. Further, soliloquies reveal the ulterior motives and the psychological sufferings of the characters, contributing to the plot in exposing the subtlety of sexual jealousy. Othello’s soliloquy just before killing Desdemona reveals his real psychological conflict and is the climax of the villainous machinations of Iago with the surcharge of Othello’s jealousy bringing the tragic end of Desdemona.

Although soliloquies in the Jataka tales may not possess the dramatic intensity of those in Othello, Sambulā’s lamentation in the forest serves as a significant example of this device. In her moment of isolation and distress, she addresses the natural elements such as priests, sages, lions, tigers, plants, and mountains, expressing her profound grief and seeking refuge. Through this emotional outpouring, she reveals her inner turmoil and desperation, praying for help in a manner that mirrors the introspective depth found in the Shakespearean soliloquies. Sambulā’s lamentation catches the attention of God Sakka, who intervenes to rescue her. However, what is most telling is that, in her soliloquy, Sambulā expresses greater sorrow over the potential loss of her husband’s love than at the immediate threat posed by the ogre. This highlights her unwavering devotion, with her emotional anguish emphasizing the depth of her loyalty. Her soliloquy reinforces the central theme of steadfast devotion, contrasting her intense suffering with her resolute fidelity, even in the face of life-threatening danger.

Shakespeare’s language, full of carefully fashioned new words and idioms, helps to achieve his purpose. Othello humbly apologizes for his ‘unrefined speech’, yet ironically he displays a higher quality than Iago at the beginning. His poetic language revealing his true feelings of happiness simply moves the audience:

…If I were now to die

‘Twere now to be most happy, for I fear

That not another comfort like this

Succeeds in unknown fate.

(Act II, scene i)

Shakespeare’s diction urges the audience to see through their own hearts, feelings, and moods as the above extract conveys Othello’s true feelings of happiness and love. His hatred and sense of vengeance are distinctly shown when he vows the following:

Arise black vengeance, from the hallow hell

Yield up, O love, thy crown and hearted throne

To tyrannous hate! Swell bosom with thy fraught,

For ‘tis aspics tongues!

(Act III, scene iii)

Sometimes his language, especially in his speeches in Acts I, II, and V, is full of high rhetoric and clichés about the glory of war. His use of complex sentence structures and a grand style about the glory of war contradict the practicality of a soldier’s life by which Shakespeare portrays his nobility in contrast to his immaturity with respect to common life. Thus, reflecting the duplicity of contrasts and nobility, Othello’s language is characterized by double standards.

Further, Shakespeare uses imagery of blackness to show the sense of vengeance of Othello’s own heart, as well as his suspicion of Desdemona’s alleged impurity:

…her name, that was as fresh

As Diana’s visage, is now begrimed and black

As mine own face, If there be cords and knives

Poison, or fire, or suffocating streams,

I’ll not endure it. Would I be satisfied!

(Act III, scene iii)

In addition to the images of Othello’s confused hatred, the image of a ‘Pontic sea’ (Act III, scene iii) shows his climaxing vengeance. Othello’s final speech, which is quite similar to a funeral oration, suggests his torture in a restrained manner and the plight of his psychological suffering.

The language reverberates his penitent agony and tormenting realization. In this manner, the change of diction of the characters runs parallel to the transformation of his character from nobility to baseness, as well as his psychological change, and the language of Iago suggests his vulgarity as a man of lowness. Iago speaks in a kind of prose characterized by euphuism implying his hypocritical mind:

‘It is in ourselves that we are thus or thus. Our bodies are our gardens, to which our wills are gardeners. So that if we will plant nettles or sow lettuce, set hyssop and weed up thyme, supply it with one gardener of herbs or distract it with many, either to have it sterile with idleness or manured with industry, why the power and corrigible authority of this lies in our wills’ (Act I, Scene iii). Shakespeare creates an image of Iago by showing his ability to use language to his advantage through his double-talk. Even though he is referred to as an ‘honest friend’ on many occasions, the audience knows the irony of the language. His language is full of decorations, alliterations, and puns like ‘parley to provocation’, ‘potations pottle-deep’, and ‘potent in potting’ (Act II, scene iii). Further, his speeches are casual and domestic, making things seem low and base. He compares lovemaking and romanticism to the copulation of animals, showing his born vulgarity even through speech. The contrasts between the speeches of Iago and of Othello and Cassio suggest their contrastive characteristics. In Act III, Iago’s description of Desdemona as ‘Wanton’, ‘sport for Jove’, ‘full of game‘, and ‘provocation’, in contrast to Cassio’s description of her as ‘exquisite’, ‘fresh’, ‘delicate’, ‘modest’, and ‘perfection’, shows the difference between the characters.

In this manner, Shakespeare amends the register of different characters to suit their characteristics in varying situations, very effectively providing the audience with an opportunity to understand the characters. A similar situation is found in the Jataka as well. The same king who suspects the virtue of the queen and condemns women in general ironically behaves dubiously, seeking pleasure with other women. Just as Othello forgets Desdemona’s virtue and love in his time of need, Sotthisena also forgets the woman he should trust. The Jataka story writer presents it with imagery as follows;

Fair as a lotus are the maids he loves,

Their swan-like voice his deepest passion moves,

And as he listens to their measured strain,

In his affections I no longer reign.

(p. 52)

Not only women but also men are disloyal and immoral. In the story, both the king and queen are subjected to sexual jealousy, demonstrating that this emotion afflicts people regardless of gender, age, position, or any other division.

Imagery also contributes immensely to conveying the themes of the play most effectively. The imagery of the “green-eyed monster” is highly effective in describing the true nature of sexual jealousy. Iago uses the imagery of animals in action, such as ‘to a plague of flies’, ‘a quarrelsome dog’, ‘the snaring of birds’, ‘asses led by the nose’, ‘wolves’, ‘goats’, ‘monkeys’, ‘green-eyed monster’, ‘we’, ’barberry horse’, ‘spider and fly’, ‘beating a dog wildcats’, etc., abusively to attribute those animal qualities to the human beings, especially to Othello, to whom he says ‘foul toads, summer flies, the raven, aspic’s tongues, crocodile tears and of course goats and monkeys’. Iago also uses sexual images as derogatory terms to describe the relationship between Othello and Desdemona. He refers to Desdemona as ‘...sport for Jove’ (Act II, Scene ii), in which Jove stands for a mythical creature who takes the form of different animals to be united with young beautiful females. Further, he uses animal imagery like ‘[w]ere they as prime as goats, as hot as monkeys,/as salt as wolves in pride...’ (Act III, Scene iii) in describing the alleged relationship between Cassio and Desdemona with the hope of intensifying Othello’s aggression about the horrible and beastly nature of their sexual passion.

In this manner, both the playwright and the Jataka story writer employ an array of literary techniques and devices that enhance the narrativity of the works.

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, the narratological analysis of Othello and the Sambulā Jātaka reveals striking similarities and profound differences in how these narratives explore themes of jealousy, trust, and the human condition. By examining the narrative structure, we see how both stories are meticulously crafted to unravel the protagonists’ descent into mistrust and condemnation. The role of the narrator and narrative perspectives highlights the subjective lenses through which the events and characters are portrayed, offering deeper insights into the motivations and inner turmoil of Othello and Sotthisena. The discussion makes it clear that the protagonists respond to sexual jealousy, driven by irrational suspicion, in different ways. While Othello brutally murders Desdemona, Sotthisena and Sambulā do not go to that extent. Furthermore, once their follies are understood, Othello commits suicide, unable to bear the guilt, whereas Sotthisena, though his folly is not as grave as Othello’s, recognizes his mistake and corrects it himself.

The focalization techniques in both texts allow readers to experience the shifting viewpoints, heightening the emotional impact and underscoring the tragic misunderstandings. The temporal aspects of the narratives, with their careful pacing and strategic use of flashbacks and foreshadowing, contribute to the building tension and the ultimate resolution of the plot.

Finally, the narrative techniques employed by Shakespeare and the Jataka storyteller, including symbolism, irony and imagery, effectively bring the underlying emotions and themes to the forefront, making the stories resonate across cultures and time periods. Shakespeare employs these techniques more abundantly and effectively than the Jataka story writer. This comparative study underscores the universality of human emotions and the timeless relevance of these narratives, bridging the Shakespearean and Jataka traditions through a shared exploration of the complexities of trust and loyalty and the consequences of irrational suspicions and sexual jealousy.