Granny Chan in Zen Buddhism: The Historical Deposition and Cultural Manifestation of Buddhist Women’s Zen Wisdom

Abstract

Zen/Chan Buddhism, as a profound spiritual tradition, has witnessed the emergence and development of a unique phenomenon known as “老婆禪 Granny Chan”, which is deeply intertwined with the spiritual pursuits of Buddhist women throughout history. This proposed research aims to expound and interrogate the hidden treasures of Zen wisdom amassed by these remarkable women, thereby shedding new light on the often-overlooked contributions within the Zen domain. To begin with, by scouring ancient Zen texts, anecdotes, and historical records, we will trace the roots and evolutionary path of “Granny Chan”. These sources are replete with accounts of nameless “grannies” engaging in profound dialogs and encounters with Zen masters. Their sharp insights and spontaneous responses during dharma exchanges, as exemplified in classic koans like “婆子點心 The Granny’s Dimsum” and “婆子燒庵 The Granny Burning the Hermitage”, reveal a depth of understanding that belies their marginalized status in traditional religious narratives. Subsequently, this study will focus on dissecting the distinct ways in which their Zen wisdom was manifested within the cultural context of Zen. Their approach, characterized by simplicity, directness, and a deep connection to life’s realities, not only added a refreshing dimension to Zen teachings but also subtly challenged the male-dominated paradigm prevalent in the religious fields. By highlighting these expressions, we can appreciate how Buddhist women’s insights became an integral part of Zen’s cultural fabric. In the contemporary context, this research holds multiple implications. It serves as a corrective to the historical neglect of Buddhist women’s spiritual achievements, providing a source of inspiration and empowerment for modern female practitioners. Moreover, it prompts a rethinking of gender equality within religious traditions, advocating for a more inclusive and equitable recognition of women’s roles in the Zen community and beyond. Overall, through the exploration of “Granny Chan”, we anticipate contributing to a better understanding of Zen Buddhism’s historical, cultural, and spiritual dimensions, bridging the gender gap and enriching the ongoing discourse on religious wisdom.

1. Introduction

Zen/Chan Buddhism, with its roots tracing back to ancient India and its subsequent development and spread in China and other East Asian countries, has evolved into a profound spiritual tradition that has captivated the hearts and minds of countless individuals over the centuries (Suzuki 1991). Originating from the teachings of the Buddha and further expounded upon by generations of enlightened masters, Zen emphasizes direct experience, intuitive understanding, and the realization of one’s true nature through meditation and self-inquiry.

Throughout history, Zen Buddhism has exerted a profound influence not only on the religious and philosophical landscapes of Asia but has also gained increasing recognition and interest in the Western world. Its teachings have inspired a rich tapestry of art, literature, and cultural expressions, and have provided a path for spiritual seekers to explore the depths of consciousness and the nature of existence.

However, despite the rich and diverse contributions of Zen Buddhism, the voices and experiences of Buddhist women have often been overlooked or marginalized in traditional religious research. In the patriarchal context of many religious traditions, including Zen, women have faced barriers to full participation and recognition. Their spiritual insights, practices, and contributions have not always received the attention they deserve (Gross 1993, p. 19).

Studies have shown that in historical Zen records, the accounts of male masters and their disciples dominate, while the stories and wisdom of Buddhist women are relatively scarce (Faure 1991). This gender imbalance has led to a significant gap in our understanding of the full spectrum of Zen teachings and practices. By neglecting the experiences of Buddhist women, we have failed to capture the complete picture of Zen’s evolution and its impact on different segments of society.

The need to address this gap is not only a matter of historical justice but also holds the potential to enrich our understanding of Zen Buddhism. By exploring the hidden treasures of Buddhist women’s Zen wisdom, we can gain new perspectives on familiar teachings and practices, and perhaps even uncover hitherto unnoticed aspects of Zen’s spiritual path (Blackstone 2013).

The primary objective of this research is to explore the Zen wisdom amassed by Buddhist women, with a particular focus on “老婆禪 (Granny Chan)”. “Granny Chan” within the realm of Zen Buddhism represents a distinctive and somewhat elusive yet significant phenomenon. It can be defined as the unique expression and embodiment of Zen wisdom by Buddhist women, which is often characterized by a certain earthiness, simplicity, and practicality in its articulation. It is not a codified or formalized school of thought but rather a way of being and understanding that has emerged organically within the Zen context.

Through an examination of ancient Zen texts, anecdotes, and historical records, we aim to unearth the unique insights and spiritual experiences of these remarkable women. By shedding light on the Zen wisdom of Buddhist women, this research seeks to contribute to a more nuanced and inclusive understanding of Zen Buddhism. It will enable us to appreciate the diversity of spiritual expressions within the Zen tradition and recognize the valuable contributions that women have made throughout its history.

Furthermore, this study holds significant implications for promoting gender equality in religious traditions. By highlighting the often-overlooked wisdom of Buddhist women, we can challenge traditional gender hierarchies and stereotypes that have persisted in religious contexts. This research will serve as a catalyst for a more equitable recognition of women’s roles and contributions in the Zen community and beyond, inspiring future generations of female practitioners and scholars.

This research will employ a multifaceted approach that combines literature research, case studies, and interdisciplinary analysis.

Literature research will form the foundation of our investigation. We will analyze a wide range of ancient Zen texts, including classic koans, sermons, and historical records1. By delving into these sources, we can trace the origins and development of “Granny Chan” and gain insights into the Zen wisdom of Buddhist women as expressed in their interactions with masters and in their own spiritual pursuits (Heine and Wright 2000).

The case study approach will be used to examine specific examples of “Granny Chan” in greater detail. By focusing on individual stories and encounters, we can better understand the unique ways in which Buddhist women manifested their Zen wisdom. These case studies will provide a rich and textured understanding of the lived experiences of these women and the impact of their insights on the Zen community.

Interdisciplinary research will also play a crucial role in this study. By drawing on insights from fields such as religious studies, gender studies, and cultural anthropology, we can analyze the phenomenon of “Granny Chan” from multiple perspectives. This interdisciplinary approach will enable us to explore the complex interplay between religious teachings, gender dynamics, and cultural contexts, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the significance of Buddhist women’s Zen wisdom.

2. The Concept and Manifestation of “Granny Chan”

Zen/Chan, with its profound spiritual connotations, has long been a source of guidance and enlightenment. However, the traditional narrative has often centered on male practitioners and masters. “Granny Chan” represents a departure from this norm. It spotlights the overlooked contributions of Buddhist women. These women, in their own ways, were engaging with Zen teachings, bringing a unique flavor to the practice. Their insights, born out of daily life experiences and a different social position, added a new dimension. Although not as prominently recorded as their male counterparts, their interactions and words of wisdom were being passed around, slowly forming the foundation of what would later be crystallized as “Granny Chan”. It is a concept that enriches the existing perception of Zen and opens up a more inclusive exploration of its significance.

2.1. Origins of “Granny Chan”

When exploring the origin of “Granny Chan”, although the relevant concepts were not clearly labeled in the early historical records, some deeds have already shown its embryonic form. For example, in the “Biographies of Buddhist Nuns”, there are many such incidents, and the deeds of Bhikṣuṇī Jingjian 淨檢 (291–361 AD) are quite typical.

Bhikṣuṇī Jingjian’s secular surname was Zhong 仲, and her given name was Lingyi 令儀 (Wang 2006, pp. 4–6). She was from Pengcheng. Since childhood, she had been fond of learning. However, she became a widow at an early age and her family was poor. She often taught the children of noble families to play the qin (a traditional Chinese musical instrument) and read books. Later, when she heard about the Buddha Dharma, she was filled with faith and joy. By chance, she met Shramana Fashi 法始. Fashi expounded the Dharma for her, and Jingjian thus had a great enlightenment and the intention to become a nun. She asked Fashi about matters related to bhikṣuṇīs. After learning about the precepts of bhikṣuṇīs, she resolutely shaved her head and, together with twenty-four like-minded women, jointly established the Bamboo Grove Temple at the west gate of the imperial city. At that time, the precepts of bhikṣuṇīs were not yet complete, and the actions of Jingjian and her peers were truly courageous. Although their path of practice faced uncertainties and challenges, Jingjian, with her firm belief, actively explored it. She interpreted the pursuit of the nature of the mind with her own actions and adhered to the belief in the Buddha Dharma in the difficult environment, striving to seek the path of liberation. This is similar to the Zen meaning expressed in a simple and direct way in “Granny Chan” and can be regarded as an embodiment of the precursor of “Granny Chan”.

In ancient Zen texts, there are also stories that can be interpreted as the initial form of “Granny Chan”. For example, according to 景德傳燈錄 The Records of the Transmission of the Lamp During the Jingde Period (compiled in 1004 AD), when Bodhidharma (?–536 AD) was about to return to India, he asked his disciples to each talk about what they had learned. Daofu said, “As I see it, one should neither cling to words nor be separated from words, and use them in accordance with the Dao”. Bodhidharma commented, “You have grasped my skin”. Bhikṣuṇī Zongchi 總持 said, “What I understand now is like when Ananda saw the Land of Akshobhya Buddha. Once seen, there is no need to see it again”. Bodhidharma commented, “You have grasped my flesh”. Daoyu said, “The four elements are originally empty, and the five aggregates are non-existent. And from where I see it, there is not a single dharma that can be grasped”. Bodhidharma commented, “You have grasped my bones”. Huike remained silent, bowed to Bodhidharma, and then stood in his place. Bodhidharma commented, “You have grasped my marrow”. And then he passed on the True Dharma Eye to Huike2. In this story of Bodhidharma passing on the Dharma, Bhikṣuṇī Zongchi was one of the four most outstanding among Bodhidharma’s many disciples. Although she was not the one to whom Bodhidharma passed on the Dharma, she deeply understood the essence of Bodhidharma’s Zen teachings, which was a good beginning for bhikṣuṇīs to practice Zen and achieve enlightenment. A shorter version of the story was recorded in 曆代法寶記 The Early Histories of Chan Buddhism (compiled in 774 AD, 230 years earlier than 景德傳燈錄), where Bhikṣuṇī Zongchi was also said to “have grasped the flesh of Bodhidharm”3. The historicity of Bodhidharma (Greene 2008) aside, both texts recorded the story of this early female Chan practitioner Bhikṣuṇī Zongchi. Although she was presented in the narrative as a supporting role rather than a leading one, her presence and voices provided a female expression in Zen wisdom, laying the groundwork for what later became of “Granny Chan”.

The social and cultural context of the time also played a role in the emergence of “Granny Chan”. In traditional Asian societies like China, women, especially older women, occupied particular social positions. They were often the keepers of the home, responsible for the day-to-day affairs and the well-being of the family. This role gave them a unique perspective on life, one that was grounded in the practicalities of existence. Their interactions with Zen teachings were thus filtered through this lens of lived experience.

Furthermore, the patriarchal nature of society at that time meant that women’s religious experiences and expressions were often marginalized or overlooked in formal religious institutions. However, in the more informal and community-based aspects of Zen practice, such as in local temples and among lay practitioners, women were able to find space to share their insights. “Granny Chan” emerged as a way for these women to communicate their understanding of Zen in a manner that was true to their own experiences and perspectives, outside the constraints of the formal male-dominated religious hierarchy.

As Zen Buddhism spread and evolved, these early manifestations of what we now call “Granny Chan” began to coalesce into a recognizable pattern. The stories and sayings of these Buddhist women were passed down orally within the community, gradually forming a body of wisdom that was generally in tune with yet somehow presented unique charm aside from the more mainstream Zen teachings. Over time, as scholars and practitioners began to take notice of these female expressions, the concept of “Granny Chan” started to take shape and gain recognition within the broader Zen Buddhist community.

2.2. Manifestation in Koans and Dialogs

In the vast expanse of the history of Zen Buddhism, the classic koans involving “Granny Chan” shine with brilliance, providing insights into the Zen wisdom of Buddhist women. They enrich the overall panorama of Zen thought from a distinctive perspective, fully displaying their exquisite and profound meaning.

The koan of “婆子點心 The Granny’s Dimsum”4 is highly representative. Master Deshan Xuanjian 德山宣鑒 (782–865 AD), surnamed Zhou from Jiannan, was a disciple of Longtan Chongxin under the Qingyuan lineage. He was renowned for his lectures on The Diamond Sutra in Western Sichuan and was known as “Zhou Jingang 周金剛” (literally Zhou who is an expert on The Diamond Sutra). At that time, there were diverse views within Buddhism regarding the path to enlightenment. Adhering to the traditional Buddhist scriptures and teachings, Deshan firmly believed that Buddhists had to endure thousands of kalpas to learn the dignified deportment of the Buddha and tens of thousands of kalpas to study the minute details of the Buddha’s conduct before attaining enlightenment. He was extremely opposed to the viewpoints of “the mind is the Buddha”, “seeing one’s true nature and attaining Buddhahood”, and “sudden enlightenment” advocated by the “southern heretics” (who were actually great Chan masters). Thus, he resolutely picked up his carefully written commentaries and notes on The Diamond Sutra and set off on a journey southward, intending to refute what he regarded as “fallacies” with his profound knowledge.

During his journey, famished Deshan encountered an old woman (Granny) selling dimsum. Noticing his monk’s attire and the books beside him, Granny asked, “What are you carrying, monk?” Deshan replied truthfully, “Commentaries and notes on The Diamond Sutra”. Granny then quoted The Diamond Sutra and asked, “The past mind is unattainable, the present mind is unattainable, and the future mind is unattainable. Which mind does the Venerable One intend to point to?” Infused with Zen wisdom, this question cleverly incorporated the words from The Diamond Sutra and made a pun with “點心 mind pointing to” and “點心 dimsum” that hit Deshan like a thunderbolt, leaving him stunned and speechless. He was extremely mortified. Relying on his reputation as “Zhou Jingang”, he was unexpectedly stumped by a common Granny using the very scripture he was proficient in.

Later, Deshan went to visit Zen Master Longtan Chongxin 龍潭崇信. Upon arriving, he looked around and pretentiously said, “I have long heard of your great name, but now that I am here, I neither see Long (the dragon) nor Tan (the pool)”. Longtan Chongxin simply replied, “You have personally come to Longtan”.5 This brief remark was like a sudden blow to Deshan. However, his mind was in turmoil at that time, and he was not able to understand it. At night, Deshan was meditating outside. Because it was dark, he did not want to go back inside. Chongxin handed him a candle, but just as Deshan was about to take it, Chongxin suddenly blew it out. In an instant, a flash of inspiration lighted up Deshan’s mind, and all his past confusions and attachments vanished. He suddenly realized the true essence of Zen Buddhism, which is to directly point to the mind and see one’s true nature to attain Buddhahood.

Zen Master Wumen Huikai 無門慧開 (1183–1260 AD) commented on the koan of “婆子點心 The Granny’s Dimsum”. He said that Deshan was so stunned by the question that his mouth was like a carrying pole, unable to utter a word. Moreover, due to his arrogance, he failed to learn from Granny, missing a great opportunity for enlightenment. He also pointed out that when Deshan later visited Longtan, he was in an embarrassing and disoriented state, with contradictory words and deeds. Longtan Chongxin, on the other hand, was like a parent who did not know how to express his love but cared deeply for his child. Seeing that Deshan still had a glimmer of desire and perseverance for seeking the Dharma, he used seemingly harsh means to awaken him. Huikai composed a verse, “Hearing the name is not as good as seeing the person; seeing the person is not as good as hearing the name. Although the nose is saved, alas, the eyes are blinded”.6 This vividly depicted Deshan’s situation. In this koan, although the Granny selling dimsum was an ordinary village woman, she was well versed in The Diamond Sutra and had a sharp sense of Zen. By combining the concept of “the unattainability of the three minds” with “dimsum”, she probed into Deshan’s lack of understanding of the Dharma, prompting him to abandon the scholastic approach and turn to direct Zen. This might be due to the widespread popularity of Zen Buddhism in the Tang Dynasty, coupled with Granny’s deep roots of wisdom.

The story of “婆子眷屬 Granny’s Family” is also thought-provoking. A bhikṣu monk, while traveling around to practice Zen meditation, encountered an old woman, Granny, sitting in front of a thatched hut in the mountains. He asked her, “Do you have any relatives?” Granny replied, “Yes”. When he further asked, “Where are they?”, Granny slowly raised her hand and pointed to the distance, saying, “The mountains, rivers, the great earth, and all the grass and trees are my relatives”.7 This simple response contained the profound Zen concept of the unity of all sentient and insentient beings, and the oneness of heaven and earth. It transcended the narrow perception of “relatives” held by ordinary people, enabling the bhikṣu monk to advance his understanding of the Dharma.

The koan of “婆子焼庵 The Granny Burning the Hermitage” is full of drama. In a remote mountain valley, an old woman, Granny, made a vow to support a monk living in a thatched hermitage for twenty years. She sent a young woman to deliver meals every day. One day, she had the woman hug the monk to test his achievements in cultivation. The monk replied, “A withered tree leans against a cold cliff, without any warmth even in the coldest winter”. When the woman returned and truthfully reported the monk’s answer, Granny was extremely disappointed. She sighed and said, “I have supported a layman for twenty years”. Disappointed, she sent the monk away and burned down the hermitage8, warning future generations that the practice of Buddhism should be integrated into life and one should be free from all attachments.

The story of “婆子偷笋 Granny Steals Bamboo Shoots” is both humorous and thought-provoking. Master Zhaozhou 趙州 (778–897 AD), a renowned master in the history of Zen Buddhism, encountered an old woman, Granny. Zhaozhou asked her, “Where are you going?” Granny replied, “I’m going to steal bamboo shoots from Zhaozhou”. Zhaozhou asked, “What if you suddenly meet this old monk?” Without hesitation, Granny raised her hand and slapped Zhaozhou. Zhaozhou silently walked away.9 This slap broke the conventional pattern of conversation, demonstrating through action that the Dharma is not a pile of words. It served as a lesson for Zhaozhou that he still had a long way to go to attain enlightenment and be prepared for all situations.

There is also the koan of “趙州勘婆 Zhaozhou Investigates Granny”. A monk asked an old woman, Granny, the way to Wutai Mountain. Granny replied, “Go straight”. After the monk had walked a few steps, Granny commented, “What a simple monk, just going like that”. Later, the monk told Zhaozhou about this. Zhaozhou said, “I will go and investigate this Granny for you”. The next day, Zhaozhou asked the same question, and Granny gave the same answer. After returning, Zhaozhou told the monks, “I have investigated and understood the Granny of Wutai Mountain”. The origin and surname of this Granny were unknown. According to Master Wansong 萬松 (1166–1246 AD), this Granny used to follow Master Wuzhuo 無著 in and out of the temple and had extensive experience in practicing Zen. Every time a monk asked her the way to Wutai Mountain, she did not tell them the way but pointed them to the road to Chang’an. If they followed her instructions without questioning, she would comment sarcastically, “What a good master, off he went like that”. Wansong highly praised her, saying that she could handle things with ease. And she could skillfully use the Dharma, breaking the attachments of monks (the “killing” aspect) and giving them new life (the “reviving” aspect). She had full control over all the afflictions, demons, and external distractions in the world, casually commanding them, and turning the mountains, rivers, and the great earth into tools for demonstrating the Dharma10. However, Wumen Huikai had a rather interesting comment on this matter. He said, “The Granny only knows how to wait and scheme, and she even attracts thieves. She doesn’t know that Master Zhaozhou is good at using surprise tactics, but he also lacks magnanimity. Upon examination, both of them are at fault. Now, tell me, where did Zhaozhou understand the Granny?” Huikai thought that the Granny “attracted thieves” because she only knew how to wait for the monks to take the bait, and Zhaozhou “lacked magnanimity” in handling this matter. Therefore, he composed a verse, “The question is the same, the answer is similar; there is sand in the rice, and there are thorns in the mud”. 11 Huikai felt that the questions and answers between Zhaozhou and the Granny seemed standard, but actually hid problems, just like having sand in the rice and thorns in the mud, making it difficult for people to understand the Dharma. Regardless of how later generations commented on “Zhaozhou Investigates the Granny”, an unknown Granny could interact with Zen masters and practitioners so freely and display such extraordinary Zen wisdom, that was truly remarkable.

In these koans, the Grannies had different identities, including village women, hermits, and benefactors. Although they were nameless, they demonstrated their “Granny Chan” wisdom through their unique understanding of the Dharma and their life wisdom in their interactions with Zen masters, injecting a different kind of vitality into the development of Zen Buddhism.

2.3. Cultural Expressions of “Granny Chan”

The series of koans related to the “Grannies” mentioned above are by no means simple historical stories. They are rich in meaning and have had an influence on the development of Zen Buddhism as well as social and cultural concepts.

Firstly, they reflect the attitude of traditional Chinese culture towards women. In these koans, there is a notable characteristic: the lay female Buddhist practitioners who communicate with Zen masters are all referred to as “Granny” or “Old Woman” in a general and vague way. They have no names, nor is there any information about their personal life. This phenomenon is not accidental; it largely implies the contemptuous attitude of society towards women at that time. Looking back at history, whether in unofficial local records or The Biographies of Virtuous Women in the official Twenty-Four Histories of China, the treatment of women is similar. In these written records, most women were deprived of their right to a name or were only referred to by their surnames like Zhou or Li. Their personal experiences, emotions, thoughts, and talents were all submerged behind these simple symbols, and women lost their personality independence and individuality. As a carrier of cultural inheritance, the term “Granny” in Zen koans is a vivid reflection of the prejudice against women in traditional culture. It clearly shows that even in the field of Buddhism, which pursues detachment from the mundane world and the equality of all sentient beings, women were still, to some extent, bound by secular regulations and it was difficult for them to obtain the same recognition and respect as men. However, it was in this seemingly unfavorable environment that these women called “Grannies” demonstrated their wisdom and shone brightly on the stage of Zen Buddhism, providing valuable historical evidence for later generations to re-examine the status and contribution of women in religion and culture (Heng-ching Shih 1995, p. 157).

Secondly, they demonstrate the open-mindedness of Zen Buddhism. Although all the “Grannies” appear as anonymous figures in the Zen records, they present plenty of wonderful moments of the exchanges of Zen wit with the masters and monks. What is more remarkable is that in many of these encounters, the level of Zen enlightenment of the Grannies was higher than that of the male masters and monks. They could make the Zen masters speechless with a simple yet profound sentence or take an unexpected action that made them walk away. For example, one Granny was so bold that she slapped Zen Master Zhaozhou in their interaction. This seemingly rebellious phenomenon was accepted and even praised in the context of Zen Buddhism. It indicates that compared with other traditional religious schools, Zen Buddhism has a more open-minded attitude. Zen Buddhism emphasizes the pursuit of the true meaning of the Dharma and is not bound by external factors such as identity or gender. As long as a person understands the essence of the Dharma, whether they are noble or common people, whether they are monks or lay people, or even women who are at the lower end of the hierarchy, they can all find their places in the world of Zen Buddhism, display their talents, and have an equal dialog with the Zen masters to explore and exhibit the mysteries of the Dharma. This open spirit not only attracted more believers from different classes and backgrounds to Zen Buddhism but also laid a solid foundation for the diversified development of Buddhist culture (Huang 2010).

Thirdly, they effectively gave birth to “Granny Chan” and related Zen styles. Due to the remarkable achievements of Zen Buddhist laywomen in Zen enlightenment, they gradually formed a unique Zen style through their unique wisdom and insights in the exchanges and collisions with Zen masters. In the development of Chinese Buddhism, the term “老婆禪 Granny Chan” emerged, which refers to the Zen method applied by “the old women”, or by a male master with a heart of Granny who really cares for her grandchildren. As stated in 從容錄 The Record of Congrong, “With nostrils held high, each has the appearance of a man of great spirit. With firm feet, one is willing to learn the Granny Chan”.12 This vividly describes the confidence and determination contained in “Granny Chan”. Those who practice “Granny Chan” have a noble and firm spirit in their hearts, are not afraid of the secular gaze, dare to explore the subtleties of the Dharma directly, and can also be down to earth, applying Zen enlightenment to daily life.

Over time, “Granny Chan” gradually evolved into a Zen style used by Zen masters to guide learners. It abandoned some of the obscure and lofty preaching models in traditional Zen methods and instead adopted a simpler way. The Zen masters drew on the wit and wisdom from “Granny Chan” that originated from daily life and guided disciples to start from the things around them to perceive the true meaning of the Dharma, in an earnest and exhortative way that just as one’s Granny would be like. As stated in 臨濟錄 The Record of Linji, “The young bride in Heyang, the Granny Chan of the wooden pagoda; the young lad Linji, yet has one eye”.13 This vividly depicts the unique charm of “Granny Chan”. It is like a gentle and delicate woman, revealing the truth in the ordinary, allowing learners to be gently illuminated by the light of wisdom inadvertently and to embrace a new understanding of the Dharma. The emergence of this Zen style has made the spread of Zen not limited to temples, high halls, and eminent monks, but it has penetrated into the streets and alleys, giving more ordinary believers the opportunity to come into contact with, understand, and practice the essence of Zen, expanding the audience of Zen and injecting vitality into the continuous development of Zen culture.

Further exploring the influence of the “Granny Chan” koans, we can also find that they provide inspiration for later Zen practitioners at the ideological level. The Grannies in these koans, whether they questioned the Zen masters with classic scriptures or tested the monks’ level of practice with immediate response or daily trifles, all emphasized the close integration of the Dharma and life. They reminded later practitioners that Zen enlightenment is not an abstract pursuit divorced from the secular world and closed-door meditation, but should be rooted in reality, in daily situations and human interactions, to gain insight into the mind and experience impermanence. For example, in the case of “The Granny’s Dimsum”, the granny who sold dimsum combined the profound philosophy of The Diamond Sutra with the ordinary business of selling and ordering dimsum, breaking Deshan’s rigid understanding of the Dharma and pushing him to understand that the Dharma lies in the present thought and every single thing. This interpretation of “life is Zen” runs through all the “Granny Chan” koans and becomes a guiding light on the path of Zen practice, illuminating the way forward for future generations, prompting them to reflect on their own understanding and practice of the Dharma.

From the perspective of cultural exchange, the “Granny Chan” koans and the cultural phenomena derived from them have also added a unique touch to the interaction between Chinese and foreign Buddhist cultures. In the process of the spread of Zen abroad, these stories full of life wisdom and wit are easier to understand and be accepted by audiences with different cultural backgrounds compared with some abstruse religious doctrines. With their unique charm of Eastern philosophy, they have attracted the attention of overseas scholars and practitioners to Zen and to the Chinese culture. In overseas Zen research works, these koans are cited as key cases for analyzing the characteristics and connotations of Chinese Chan (Zen). At the same time, the spirit of equality and inclusiveness contained in “Granny Chan” coincides with the advocation of the coexistence of multiple cultures in modern society, providing useful ideological resources for cross-cultural communication.

3. The Historical Development and Significance of “Granny Chan”

Ever since the Tang and Song Dynasties in China, “Granny Chan” has developed and evolved through time and spread influence to other Asian countries like Japan and Korea. As an indispensable part of Zen Buddhism, “Granny Chan”, with its female perspective, has irreplaceable significance in enriching Zen thought, inspiring Zen teaching, facilitating Zen practice, and adds richness and vitality to the Zen community. Moreover, “Granny Chan” makes considerable contributions to promoting gender equality and empowering women, not just within the boundaries of the Zen community but extending to a broader social context.

3.1. Evolution Through Different Historical Periods

The development of “Granny Chan” has been a dynamic process that has unfolded over the course of different historical periods, adapting and transforming in response to a multitude of social, cultural, and religious factors.

In the early formative years of Zen Buddhism, during the Tang and Song dynasties in China, the seeds of what would later be termed “Granny Chan” were sown. During this time, Zen was in a phase of rapid growth and expansion, with monasteries and communities springing up across the land. While the teachings and institutions were usually male-dominated, there were still spaces within the Zen community where women were able to express their spiritual insights. The social context of the time, although patriarchal, also placed a certain value on the wisdom of the elderly, regardless of gender. This provided ground for the emergence of “Granny Chan”. Women in these communities, often through their interactions with Zen masters and fellow practitioners, began to develop and share their unique perspectives on Zen practicing. These early expressions were direct, simple and practical, emphasizing the application of Zen principles in the moment and in daily life. These insights were passed down, orally or written, within the community, gradually forming a nascent body of wisdom that was added to the more formal and intellectualized teachings of the male scholars and masters (Welter 2006).

As Zen Buddhism spread to other regions, such as Japan and Korea, during the medieval period, “Granny Chan” underwent further evolution. In Japan, for example, the cultural context placed a strong emphasis on harmony with nature and the simplicity of daily life. This influenced the way “Granny Chan” was manifested. The stories and sayings of Buddhist women in Japan incorporated elements of the local culture, such as the appreciation of the changing seasons and the beauty of the natural landscape. The role of women in Japanese society, which was somewhat different from that in China, also affected the development of “Granny Chan”. Japanese women, while also operating within a patriarchal framework, had their unique social positions and cultural practices. The “Granny Chan” wisdom in Japan often focused on how to find spiritual meaning in the midst of these cultural norms, such as through the practice of tea ceremony or flower arrangement as a form of Zen practice (Corbett 2018). In Korea, the Confucian influence on society interacted with Zen Buddhism, and the expressions of “Granny Chan” took on a different flavor. Here, the emphasis on filial piety and family values was integrated with Zen teachings, and the wisdom of Buddhist women often revolved around how to balance spiritual pursuits with family responsibilities (Faure 1991).

During the modern era, with the impact of globalization and the increasing interaction between different cultures and religions, “Granny Chan” has faced new challenges and opportunities. The rise of feminism and the growing awareness of gender equality have led to a re-examination of the role of women in Zen Buddhism (Noriko 2003). This has given new impetus to the study and recognition of “Granny Chan”. Scholars and practitioners have begun to look more closely at the historical contributions of Buddhist women and their unique perspectives. Among the recent studies, Beata Grant discusses the women Chan masters of seventeenth-century China (Grant 2009), and Yuhang Li expounds on the artistic devotion of Buddhist women in late imperial China (Li 2020).

At the same time, the modern world’s emphasis on individualism and the search for meaning in a fast-paced, materialistic society has also influenced the way “Granny Chan” is understood and practiced. Some modern interpretations of “Granny Chan” focus on how it can provide practical guidance for dealing with stress, finding inner peace in a chaotic world, and maintaining a sense of connection with what is greater than oneself.

The evolution of “Granny Chan” thus reflects the complex interplay between Zen teachings, social structures, cultural values, and historical circumstances. It has continuously adapted to changing times while maintaining its core essence of simple, practical, and intuitive Zen wisdom expressed by Buddhist women.

3.2. The Role of “Granny Chan” in Zen Buddhism

“Granny Chan” has played a significant and multifaceted role in the development of Zen Buddhism, leaving a profound impact on both Zen thought and the spiritual growth and practice of its disciples.

In the realm of Zen thought, “Granny Chan” has introduced a distinct perspective that complements and enriches the traditional teachings. It has challenged the sometimes overly intellectual and abstract nature of Zen doctrines by emphasizing the practical and immediate aspects of spiritual realization. For example, the simple and down-to-earth wisdom expressed by the “Grannies” in koans has reminded practitioners that enlightenment is not an esoteric concept reserved for the learned elites but is accessible in the ordinary moments of daily life. This has broadened the understanding of Zen, making it more inclusive and relevant to a wider range of people. It has also encouraged a more experiential approach to Zen practice, where the focus is on direct intuition and the cultivation of mindfulness in everyday activities such as walking, eating, and working (Dawson 2021).

A story in 景德傳燈錄 The Record of the Transmission of the Lamp During the Jingde Period clearly demonstrates this. When Linji Yixuan 臨濟義玄 (?–867 AD) visited Zen master Dayu, he recounted that he had been beaten and scolded three times when he asked Zen master Huangbo Xiyun about the “essence of Buddhism” and was puzzled about whether he was at fault. After hearing this, Dayu praised Huangbo Xiyun, saying, “He is truly like a kind-hearted old woman. To help you achieve enlightenment, he has tried every means. Why are you still asking what your fault is here?” This plot reflects the unique wisdom of “Granny Chan”14. Yixuan was eager to seek the essence of Buddhism from the outside, while Huangbo Xiyun applied the seemingly violent method of beating and scolding to cut off Yixuan’s outward-seeking mind and lead him back to his own enlightenment. This indicates that “Granny Chan” does not follow the conventional, rational, and abstract path of enlightening disciples. The real kindness of the master’s guidance lies in the seemingly “unreasonable” persistence and painstaking effort to directly target the core of the disciple’s delusions. This simple and direct way reminds practitioners that the essence of Buddhism is not abstruse knowledge that needs to be acquired from the outside through long-winded explanations, and the true nature of oneself can be realized in the present moment. It broadens people’s understanding of Zen thought, emphasizing that enlightenment actually lies in the mundaneness of ordinary life rather than being achieved by elites through complex philosophical exploration.

Regarding the spiritual growth of Zen disciples, the stories related to “Granny Chan” offer inspiration. Just like Yixuan’s experience, for beginners, the painstaking teaching represented by “Granny Chan” can be an extremely effective guide. Beginners are often troubled by complex philosophical concepts in Zen Buddhism. However, the special educational method like what Yixuan received from Huangbo Xiyun, in an extreme but highly impactful way, makes disciples realize that in the pursuit of enlightenment, there is no need to overly focus on complicated external forms or be eager to obtain definite answers from others. Huangbo Xiyun’s seemingly unreasonable beating and scolding actually guided Yixuan to let go of his obsession with seeking knowledge and recognition from the outside. This kind of teaching brought about a huge transformation for Yixuan to realize that “Buddhism is not so complicated”, having him embrace confidence and simplicity in self-cultivation.

In Zen practice, the story of “Granny Chan” has a positive guiding significance. In the story, Huangbo Xiyun’s “Granny Chan” directly affected Yixuan’s mindset of practice. His emphasis on the present is reflected in the act of not answering but beating. This behavior inspires disciples to grow confidence within themselves instead of seeking teachings and guidance from authorities or superiors. After communicating with Dayu, Yixuan realized the reason why Huangbo stopped his asking by beating him up. Just as Huangbo Xiyun expected Yixuan to extinguish delusions and reflect on himself to achieve enlightenment, disciples are inspired to bring the same awareness and concentration as in sitting meditation into daily activities such as walking, eating, and working, making every moment an opportunity for spiritual growth towards enlightenment.

“Granny Chan” also serves as a teaching tool for Zen masters. The case of Dayu’s interpretation of Huangbo Xiyun’s “Granny Chan” applied in guiding Yixuan is quoted and applied by masters to explain key Zen teachings. Through the analysis of this special master–disciple encounter story, disciples are urged to reflect on their own practice methods and to discover extraordinary wisdom in ordinary things. As Yixuan puts it, “Buddhism is not so complicated”. Indeed, in the view of Zen, enlightenment actually presents itself in the most ordinary tasks like having meals, drinking tea, or even going to the toilet.

In addition, “Granny Chan” adds richness and vitality to the Zen community. The characters in the story, such as Huangbo Xiyun and Dayu, whether male or the implied female (the image related to the “granny’s heart”), their various performances represent different styles of wisdom expression in Zen. The collision and exchange of different ideas and various seemingly strange teaching interactions create a vibrant and inclusive Zen community environment where different practice experiences and insights converge, communicate, and promote each other, thus stimulating the creativity of Zen teachings and giving birth to more explorations of artistic forms, literary works, and practice methods influenced by this diversity.

Overall, “Granny Chan” is an indispensable part of Zen Buddhism, having irreplaceable significance in enriching thought, promoting the spiritual growth of disciples, facilitating practice, and enhancing the vitality of the community.

3.3. Significance for Gender Equality in Religion

“Granny Chan” holds profound significance in challenging traditional gender roles within Zen Buddhism and has far-reaching implications for promoting gender equality in religious traditions and empowering Buddhist women.

In the context of Zen, traditional gender roles have often been patriarchal, just as they are in secular life, with male figures dominating the formal religious hierarchies and the dissemination of teachings. In 無門關 The Gateless Gate (compiled in 1228 AD), the forty-eight collected Zen koans were mostly about the stories of male masters and disciples, and only three koans involved female practitioners. Although barely documented, “Granny Chan” did emerge as a counter-narrative, presenting the spiritual wisdom and insights of Buddhist women. By highlighting the voices and experiences of these women, it challenges the notion that spiritual authority and profound understanding are the exclusive domain of men. The stories and koans cited above featuring “Granny Chan” demonstrate that women are equally capable of attaining spiritual realizations and expressing Zen wisdom. This challenges the long-held stereotype that women are somehow less qualified or suited for spiritual pursuits within Buddhist or Zen tradition (Yang 2004).

The existence and recognition of “Granny Chan” plays an important role in promoting gender equality in religious traditions. It serves as a reminder that religious teachings and spiritual experiences are not gender-specific. By showcasing the unique perspectives and contributions of Buddhist women, it broadens the understanding of what it means to be a spiritual seeker in Zen. This can inspire other religious traditions to re-examine their own gender biases and exclusions, and to create more inclusive spaces for women to participate in religious life. It encourages a more egalitarian approach to religious practice, where the insights and experiences of all individuals, regardless of gender, are valued and respected.

“Granny Chan” plays a crucial role in empowering Buddhist women. It provides them with a sense of validation and recognition on their spiritual journeys. For many Buddhist women, seeing the wisdom of their female predecessors acknowledged can boost their confidence and encourage them to pursue their own spiritual growth. It gives them a historical and cultural precedent to draw upon, showing that they are part of a long line of women who have made significant contributions to Zen culture. This will inspire them to engage in religious study, meditation, and the sharing of their own insights, thereby increasing their participation and influence within the Zen community and beyond.

The study and promotion of “Granny Chan” will have a positive impact on the education and training of Buddhist women. Including the stories and teachings of “Granny Chan” in religious curricula and educational programs provides female students with role models and examples of female spiritual achievement. This will help to counteract the gender imbalance in traditional religious education, which often focuses on the male masters and their teachings. It will also encourage female students to develop their own perspectives and voices and contribute to the ongoing evolution of Zen thought and practice.

In a broader social context, the recognition of “Granny Chan” will contribute to the overall empowerment of women in society. By challenging gender stereotypes within a religious context, it sends a message that women are not limited by traditional gender roles in any area of life. It can inspire women to break free from the constraints placed on them and to pursue their dreams and aspirations with confidence. This can have a ripple effect, leading to greater gender equality in other aspects of society, such as education and politics.

In conclusion, “Granny Chan” is not only a valuable aspect of Zen Buddhist heritage but also a powerful force for promoting gender equality in society and empowering women in a broader context. Its significance extends beyond the boundaries of Zen and has the potential to inspire positive change in how religious traditions and the society as a whole view and include women.

4. The Value and Application of “Granny Chan” in Contemporary Society

In contemporary society, the wisdom and spiritual strength embodied in “Granny Chan” still possess inestimable value and can be innovatively applied in multiple fields.

4.1. Inspirations for Modern Spiritual Life

In the fast-paced and highly stressful modern life, people often lose themselves in the pursuit of material achievements. Anxiety-driven and confused, their spiritual worlds become lost and empty. “Granny Chan” emphasizes seeking spiritual enlightenment in the mundaneness of daily life, providing inspiration for modern people to deal with their spiritual struggles and dilemmas.

For example, the mindfulness lifestyle advocated by “Granny Chan” coincides with the currently popular mindfulness therapy, which emphasizes generating an awareness by focusing on the present moment and refraining from judging the experiences perceived at every moment, so as to improve one’s mental well-being. Studies have shown that this therapy has significant effects in relieving stress and improving mood (Kabat-Zinn 1990). The women in the stories of “Granny Chan” can handle situations in a direct, simple yet powerful way, which is an embodiment of mindfulness and self-confidence. People in modern society can learn from this to concentrate on the tasks at hand in work and in daily life, to feel the taste and texture of food when eating, and the contact between the feet and the ground when walking, so as to cultivate inner peace and relieve the pressure and anxiety brought about by multitasking, lingering over the past or worrying about the future (Brown and Ryan 2003).

In addition, the “life in Zen” attitude contained in “Granny Chan” reminds modern people not to be bewitched by material desires. The wisdom of “Granny Chan” guides people to return to a simple life, to explore the meaning and value of life from the bottom of their hearts, to cherish the people and things around them, and to be grateful for the little happiness in life (Csikszentmihalyi 1990).

4.2. Application in the Field of Psychological Counseling and Therapy

The concepts and methods of “Granny Chan” can be introduced into the field of psychological counseling and therapy, providing inspirational approaches to solving modern people’s psychological problems.

Firstly, the attitude of acceptance and inclusiveness emphasized by “Granny Chan” helps counselors create a safe and trusting environment for clients. During the counseling process, counselors treat clients’ various emotions, thoughts, and behaviors with an accepting attitude, without judging or criticizing, so that clients feel respected and understood, and can express their inner worlds more openly. This is consistent with the spirit of treating all beings equally and inclusively in “Granny Chan” (Rogers 1951).

Secondly, some of the koans and stories in “Granny Chan” can be used as metaphors and story therapies in psychological counseling and therapy. For example, the story of “婆子燒庵 The Granny Burning the Hermitage” conveys the truth that one should practice without attachments. Counselors can use this story to guide clients to reflect on whether they are overly persistent or compulsive in their lives, helping them let go of unnecessary burdens and achieve spiritual liberation. By sharing these stories of wisdom, clients might view their problems from different perspectives, gain inspiration and insights, and thus promote their psychological growth and well-being (Gardner 1983).

Finally, the concept of practicing in daily life advocated by “Granny Chan” provides clients with a continuous way of psychological growth outside the counseling room. Clients can integrate the concepts of “Granny Chan” into their daily lives, be aware of their emotions and behaviors, and improve their psychological cultivation through daily practice and reflection, so as to consolidate the treatment effect (Linehan 1993).

4.3. Inspirational Role for Contemporary Women’s Development

“Granny Chan” plays an important inspiring role in the development of contemporary women and can help women achieve greater achievements in personal growth, career development, and social participation.

From the perspective of personal growth, the independent thinking and indomitable qualities demonstrated by women in “Granny Chan” set an example for contemporary women. They were able to pursue spiritual enlightenment and the improvement of wisdom under the constraints of traditional society. This inspires contemporary women to bravely pursue their dreams, continuously learn and grow, and enhance their self-worth (Friedan 1963).

In terms of career development, “Granny Chan” encourages women to deal with the challenges at work with a calm and focused mind. The modern workplace is highly competitive, and women often face more pressure and difficulties. The wisdom of “Granny Chan” reminds women to maintain inner peace, not be influenced by external interferences and pressures, and focus on improving their abilities, completing work tasks and exercising leadership. At the same time, the unique perspectives and innovative thinking advocated by “Granny Chan” can also help women stand out in the workplace and open up new paths for career development (Sandberg 2013).

In social participation, the experiences of women in “Granny Chan” participating in religious activities and communicating with Zen masters inspire contemporary women to engage in social affairs and exert influence. Contemporary women have more rights and opportunities and should bravely express their views and demands and contribute to the development of society. “Granny Chan” provides women with spiritual motivation and cultural support, enabling them to participate more confidently in all fields of society (Hooks 2000).

5. Conclusions and Future Perspectives

This study has expounded and interrogated the phenomenon of “Granny Chan”, the Zen wisdom of Buddhist women, from its concept, manifestation, and historical development to its value and application in contemporary society, revealing the unique and important contribution of “Granny Chan” in the long history of Zen Buddhism.

By tracing the origin of “Granny Chan”, we found that its embryonic form had already emerged in the early development of Zen Buddhism. The deeds of Bhikṣuṇī Jingjian and many suggestive koans, combined with the social and cultural background at that time, jointly gave birth to the prototype of “Granny Chan”. Classic koans such as “婆子點心 The Granny’s Dimsum” and “婆子燒庵 The Granny Burning the Hermitage” demonstrate the profound and subtle wisdom of “Granny Chan”. These anonymous “old women” brought unique vitality into the development of Zen Buddhism with their unique understanding of Buddhism and life wisdom.

From the perspective of historical development, “Granny Chan” has evolved in different historical periods. From its germination in the Tang and Song Dynasties, to its spreading to regions such as Japan and South Korea and integrating with the local cultures, and then to facing new opportunities and challenges in modern society under the background of globalization and the rise of feminism, it has always maintained the core essence of the simple, practical, and intuitive Zen wisdom expressed by Buddhist women.

Within Zen Buddhism, “Granny Chan” has supplemented and enriched Zen thought, bringing fresh perspective to the complicated Buddhist concepts and teachings and emphasizing the practical and immediate aspects of spiritual enlightenment; it has provided inspirations for the spiritual growth of Zen disciples, guiding them to the path to enlightenment; and it has become a teaching tool for Zen masters, promoting the richness and vitality of the Zen community. At the same time, “Granny Chan” is of great significance for religious gender equality. It has challenged the gender stereotypes in Zen traditions, promoted gender equality in religious traditions, empowered Buddhist women, and has had a positive impact on the development of women in all fields.

In contemporary society, “Granny Chan” has a wide range of values and applications. It provides inspiration for modern people’s spiritual life, helping them find inner peace and pursue the meaning of life. In the field of psychological counseling and therapy, its concepts and methods can be innovatively applied to help solve psychological problems. Furthermore, “Granny Chan” inspires women to strive for progress in personal growth, career development and social participation and to realize their self-worth by making their own contributions.

In conclusion, “Granny Chan” is not only a treasure of the history and culture of Zen Buddhism but also a source of wisdom with guiding significance and practical value for contemporary society. Nevertheless, “Granny Chan” might be a nuanced and complicated phenomenon itself that contains underlying tensions and contradictions and requires deeper investigation. Its comparison with other religious movements as well as its regional and cultural variants also calls for further exploration. Future researchers could take a step forward from the research on “Granny Chan”, drawing attention to more neglected groups and voices in religious traditions, so as to promote a more diversified, inclusive and healthy development of religious culture.