Saved Queries

by Paweł Kubik, Wojciech Gruszczyński, Aleksandra Pawłowska, Maciej Malinowski, Brygida Baran, Agnieszka Pawłowska-Kubik, Łukasz Kodłubański and Bartłomiej Łukasik

Biomedicines 2026, 14(1), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines14010133 (registering DOI) - 9 Jan 2026

Abstract

In the original version of the manuscript [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biomedical Engineering and Materials)

20 pages, 1368 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Input-Data Matrix Representations Used for Continual Learning with Orthogonal Weight Modification on Edge Devices

by Ronald Mendez, Andreas Maier and Johannes Emmert

Sensors 2026, 26(2), 425; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26020425 (registering DOI) - 9 Jan 2026

Abstract

The number of industrial processes in which smart devices have been employed rises every day; these devices can be found performing tasks related to the automation, digitization, or optimization of the process. Generally, for these tasks, the devices need to communicate with each other and with a central unit monitored by humans, which is where Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) comes into play, allowing a network to be built between the devices. Communication might be enough for monitoring purposes, but the optimization and automation of the process are yet to be addressed. In this study, we use an object detection sensor as an initial test subject to explore the Artificial Neural Twin (ANT) as a distributed-process optimization tool in combination with Orthogonal Weight Modification (OWM), a continual learning (CL) method used to augment self-operating devices (i.e., microcontrollers used for machine-vision sensors) with the capacity to learn new tasks autonomously. Some of these devices lack the hardware capacity to run a CL algorithm, which also motivated the comparison of the Fisher matrix, NEig-OWM, and LoRA as matrix approximations to reduce the complexity of the operations between them. Among the compared matrices, we found the Fisher matrix to be the least expensive solution with a negligible reduction in the model’s performance after CL, which makes it a viable solution for large AI models, while NEig-OWM is better suited for smaller models that require fewer hardware resources but more control over the CL algorithm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT): Network Architectures and Distributed Applications)

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17 pages, 857 KB

Open AccessArticle

Driving Service Stickiness in the AI Subscription Economy: The Roles of Algorithmic Curation, Technological Fluidity, and Cognitive Efficiency

by Bokyung Kim and Joonyong Park

J. Theor. Appl. Electron. Commer. Res. 2026, 21(1), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/jtaer21010030 (registering DOI) - 9 Jan 2026

Abstract

This study examines the psychological mechanisms underlying service stickiness during the mature phase of the AI subscription economy, with particular attention to the paradox of subscription fatigue. To enhance conceptual clarity, AI-driven stimuli—specifically Algorithmic Curation and Technological Fluidity—are defined as perceived attributes at the individual level. Employing the Stimulus–Organism–Response (S-O-R) framework, the research explores how these perceived stimuli influence consumers’ internal states (Cognitive Efficiency and Serendipity) and subsequent behavioral responses (Service Stickiness). Empirical analysis using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) on data from U.S. subscription service users yields several theoretical insights. Cognitive Efficiency is identified as the primary driver of stickiness, indicating that, in the context of subscription fatigue, the utilitarian benefit of reduced cognitive effort surpasses hedonic enjoyment. Additionally, the study identifies a “Frictionless Trap,” in which excessive Technological Fluidity negatively affects Serendipity (β = −0.195), suggesting that an entirely seamless experience may create a filter bubble that limits unexpected discovery. As a result, Serendipity does not significantly affect stickiness in the aggregate model. However, post hoc analysis demonstrates that Serendipity remains significant for high-income users, while Cognitive Efficiency is most influential in high-frequency utilitarian contexts, such as food services. These findings indicate that sustainable retention depends on reducing cognitive load while intentionally introducing friction to preserve opportunities for discovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AI-Based Disruption, Innovations, and New Business Models in E-Commerce: Empirical Research, Case Studies and Current Trends)

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29 pages, 2980 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating NLP and Ensemble Learning into Next-Generation Firewalls for Robust Malware Detection in Edge Computing

by Ramahlapane Lerato Moila and Mthulisi Velempini

Sensors 2026, 26(2), 424; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26020424 (registering DOI) - 9 Jan 2026

Abstract

As edge computing becomes increasingly central to modern digital infrastructure, it also creates opportunities for sophisticated malware attacks that traditional security systems struggle to address. This study proposes a natural language processing (NLP) framework integrated with ensemble learning into next-generation firewalls (NGFWs) to detect and mitigate malware attacks in edge computing environments. The approach leverages unstructured threat intelligence (e.g., cybersecurity reports, logs) by applying NLP techniques, such as TF-IDF vectorization, to convert textual data into structured insights. This process uncovers hidden patterns and entity relationships within system logs. By combining Random Forest (RF) and Logistic Regression (LR) in a soft voting ensemble, the proposed model achieves 95% accuracy on a cyber threat intelligence dataset augmented with synthetic data to address class imbalance, and 98% accuracy on the CSE-CIC-IDS2018 dataset. The study was validated using ANOVA to assess statistical robustness and confusion matrix analysis, both of which confirmed low error rates. The system enhances detection rates and adaptability, providing a scalable defense layer optimized for resource-constrained, latency-sensitive edge environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Internet of Things)

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12 pages, 546 KB

Open AccessArticle

Clinical Impact of Multifocality and Bilaterality on Lymph Node Metastasis in Papillary Thyroid Microcarcinoma

by Merima Goran, Marko Buta, Srdjan Nikolic, Nada Santrac, Nikola Jeftic, Nevena Savkovic, Jovan Raketic, Zoran Kozomara, Natasa Medic-Milijic, Ana Cvetkovic, Saska Pavlovic and Ivan Markovic

Diagnostics 2026, 16(2), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics16020208 (registering DOI) - 9 Jan 2026

Abstract

Objective: Papillary thyroid microcarcinoma (PTMC) often presents with multifocality and bilaterality, but the clinical significance of these features and their association with cervical lymph node metastases (LNMs) remain debated. The aim of this study was to investigate the patterns of multifocality and bilaterality in PTMC and their association with central and lateral neck lymph node metastases. Methods: This retrospective study analyzed 254 patients with histologically confirmed PTMC treated at the Institute for Oncology and Radiology of Serbia between 2004 and 2016. All patients underwent total thyroidectomy with central and, when indicated, lateral neck dissection. Associations between multifocality, bilaterality, and cervical LNM were evaluated using appropriate statistical tests. A p-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: Multifocal tumors were present in 40.55% of patients, with bilateral involvement in 27.17%. Cervical LNM occurred in 33.07% of patients, with 26.77% showing central and 20.08% lateral metastases. Patients with multifocal tumors were associated with significantly higher proportions of male patients (p = 0.0283), higher rates of capsular invasion (p = 0.0002), larger tumor size (p = 0.0134), and increased incidence of LNM (p = 0.0152). Bilateral tumors were associated with larger tumor size (p = 0.0004) and more frequent capsular invasion (p = 0.0248), but not with a statistically significant increase in LNM. The number of tumor foci was strongly associated with both central and lateral LNM (p < 0.001). Conclusions: Multifocality, particularly with a higher number of tumor foci, is significantly associated with more aggressive tumor features and higher rates of cervical lymph node metastases in PTMC. While bilaterality also reflects a more aggressive phenotype, it was not independently predictive of LNM. These findings underscore the importance of careful risk stratification in PTMC and suggest that multifocality should inform surgical and follow-up strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Thyroid Nodule and Cancer Diagnostics)

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14 pages, 3529 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Non-Contact Defect Detection Using the Laser Ultrasonic Method for Friction Stir-Welded Cu–Al Dissimilar Material Joints

by Kazufumi Nomura, Shogo Ishifuro and Satoru Asai

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(2), 688; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16020688 (registering DOI) - 9 Jan 2026

Abstract

Ensuring friction stir welding (FSW) joint quality typically relies on ultrasonic testing (UT) and radiographic testing (RT), but achieving complete coverage is challenging, and echo-based defect discrimination becomes difficult in dissimilar joints. Laser ultrasonics is a promising non-contact technique that remotely assesses weld quality and provides high spatial resolution at the generation and detection points. This study establishes a laser-ultrasonic method for defect detection in dissimilar Cu–Al FSW joints. Slit-like artificial defects (0.1–2.5 mm deep in 5 mm thick plates) were introduced at the Al-side interface of specimens fabricated with an Al-offset tool. Experiments and numerical simulations were used to evaluate wave modes and irradiation configurations, focusing on intensity-attenuation ratios of specific wave types, including longitudinal and Rayleigh waves. On the non-slit surface, attenuation of reflected longitudinal waves enabled detection of defects ≥0.5 mm deep. On the slit surface, Rayleigh-wave attenuation allowed identification of defects as shallow as 0.1 mm, although slit-side irradiation may be less practical during joining. These results demonstrate that defect identification in dissimilar materials can be achieved by evaluating wave-intensity attenuation rather than relying solely on the presence of reflected echoes, suggesting potential for implementing laser ultrasonics in in-process monitoring of FSW joints. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Industrial Applications of Laser Ultrasonics)

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18 pages, 526 KB

Open AccessReview

Current and Emerging Biomarkers in Dermatomyositis: Clinical Utility and Future Directions

by Fiona Jaederlund, Ka Wei Katty Joo Hu, Claudio Karsulovic and Lia Hojman

Int. J. Transl. Med. 2026, 6(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijtm6010004 (registering DOI) - 9 Jan 2026

Abstract

Idiopathic inflammatory myopathies (IIM) comprise a heterogeneous group of autoimmune disorders with variable systemic involvement. Among them, dermatomyositis (DM) is the subtype with the most extensive biomarker characterization due to its defined immunopathology and frequent association with interstitial lung disease (ILD). This narrative review summarizes studies retrieved from PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science up to March 2025, focusing on non-autoantibody biomarkers in DM. Reported categories include soluble proteins, cytokines, chemokines, muscle-specific microRNAs, and transcriptomic signatures reflecting interferon activation, tissue injury, and fibrotic remodeling. Among the most validated molecules, interferon-stimulated genes, ferritin, KL-6, SP-D, and CXCL10 demonstrate diagnostic and prognostic value, particularly in anti-MDA5-positive DM, where they support early identification of patients at risk for rapidly progressive ILD. However, despite increasing evidence, most biomarkers lack disease specificity, standardized cutoffs, and multicenter validation, while molecular assays remain confined to specialized laboratories. Clinically accessible markers such as ferritin, KL-6, and CXCL10 currently offer the highest translational potential. Nevertheless, the heterogeneity of study designs and analytical methods continues to limit comparability and routine clinical integration. Future research should prioritize the validation of composite biomarker panels through standardized, multicentric studies to enhance diagnostic precision and enable precision medicine approaches in DM and related inflammatory myopathies. Full article

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13 pages, 648 KB

Open AccessArticle

Geripausal Women—A New Challenge for Urogynecology in Upcoming Years

by Aleksandra Kołodyńska, Aleksandra Kamińska, Aleksandra Strużyk, Ewa Rechberger-Królikowska, Magdalena Ufniarz and Tomasz Rechberger

J. Clin. Med. 2026, 15(2), 530; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm15020530 (registering DOI) - 9 Jan 2026

Abstract

Background/Objectives: The growing population of women aged ≥ 80 years poses a new challenge for urogynecology. Advanced age, comorbidities, and polypharmacy raise concerns regarding the safety of procedures in the management of pelvic floor disorders (PFDs) such as pelvic organ prolapse (POP), stress urinary incontinence (SUI), and overactive bladder (OAB). Individualized, frailty-based assessment is essential in this group. The aim of the study was to evaluate the safety profile of urogynecological surgical procedures among women aged ≥ 80 years at a single tertiary center. Methods: In a retrospective observational single-center study, we analyzed the medical documentation of 774 hospitalizations of women aged ≥ 80 years admitted between 2014 and 2023. The analysis included indications, comorbidities, treatment types, anesthesia, and complications. Comorbidity and surgical risk were evaluated using the Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI) and Clavien–Dindo classification. Results: A total of 720 admissions with complete medical records were analyzed, of which 65% were for urogynecological conditions. In this group, the mean age was 83.0 years and mean BMI was 27.2 kg/m². Most patients (92.9%) had comorbidities, mainly hypertension (84.2%) and diabetes (21.1%). POP was the leading indication (52%), followed by SUI (35%) and OAB (27%). Surgical management was performed in 95% of POP cases, predominantly via vaginal native tissue repair (80%), especially LeFort colpocleisis (20%). The transobturator sling (TOT) was the most frequent SUI surgery. Intraoperative complications occurred in 1.5% of cases and postoperative ones were mainly minor (Clavien–Dindo I–II). No procedure-related deaths were recorded. Conclusions: In this cohort, surgical treatment of urogynecological problems in women ≥80 years was associated with a low rate of major complications, suggesting that it can be safely offered to elderly patients. Careful preoperative assessment based on frailty and comorbidity rather than chronological age remains essential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Trends in Urogynecology: 3rd Edition)

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12 pages, 3004 KB

Open AccessArticle

Revealing the Thermophysical Behavior of Fluorite-Type High-Entropy Ceramics for Advanced Thermal Barrier Coating Applications

by Tingting Huang, Wei Fan, Run Zou, Xiaobin Zhong and Tiexiong Su

Coatings 2026, 16(1), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings16010079 (registering DOI) - 9 Jan 2026

Abstract

Taking advantage of the ionic size and mass disorder as component design criteria, three novel high-entropy rare-earth zirconate ceramics, including (Sm_0.2Gd_0.2Dy_0.2Er_0.2Tm_0.2)₂Zr₂O₇, (Gd_0.2Dy_0.2Ho_0.2Er_0.2Tm_0.2)₂Zr₂O₇ and (Gd_0.2Dy_0.2Ho_0.2Er_0.2Yb_0.2)₂Zr₂O₇, with single-phase fluorite structure were successfully synthesized. All compositions exhibited enhanced mechanical properties, with Vickers hardness and fracture toughness increasing as the grain size decreased. (Gd_0.2Dy_0.2Ho_0.2Er_0.2Yb_0.2)₂Zr₂O₇ demonstrated superior mechanical performance, achieving values of 11.41 ± 0.40 GPa and 1.78 ± 0.12 MPa·m^1/2, respectively. The thermal expansion coefficients at 1000 °C ranged from 10.80 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹ to 11.39 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹, which is proportional to the average ionic bond length. Notably, (Sm_0.2Gd_0.2Dy_0.2Er_0.2Tm_0.2)₂Zr₂O₇ exhibited low room-temperature thermal conductivity (1.58 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹) due to pronounced size and mass disorder, without compromising structural stiffness. These findings highlight the potential of high-entropy design for advanced thermal barrier coatings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ceramic Coatings and Engineering Technology)

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15 pages, 2979 KB

Open AccessArticle

Miniaturized High-Speed FBG Interrogator Based on a Photonic AWG Chip

by Yunjing Jiao, Kun Yao, Qijing Lin, Jiaqi Du, Yueqi Zhao, Kaichen Ye, Bin Sun and Zhuangde Jiang

Nanomaterials 2026, 16(2), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano16020089 (registering DOI) - 9 Jan 2026

Abstract

Although AWGs are widely used in FBG interrogation systems, conventional interrogators are often bulky and hard to deploy, limiting their use in complex field environments. Here, we developed an FBG interrogator based on a photonic AWG chip, comprising a photonic chip module, an optoelectronic detection and processing module, and an output interface module. The AWG chip measures only 280 µm × 150 µm, while the entire interrogator measures just 160 mm × 100 mm × 80 mm, achieving system miniaturization. Wavelength interrogation tests show that the FBG interrogator achieves a wavelength accuracy of 9.87 pm and a high-speed sampling rate of up to 10 kHz, enabling high-precision, real-time FBG demodulation under rapidly varying temperatures. Furthermore, the interrogator was subjected to engineering validation, with dynamic FBG wavelength demodulation experiments conducted under high-temperature shocks in a turbo-engine, verifying its reliability under extreme conditions and demonstrating its potential for broader engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Nanophotonics Materials and Devices)

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22 pages, 2424 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Organic and Conventional Production Systems on Mineral, Chemical, Antioxidants, and Colorimetric Composition of Grape Pomace from Different Cultivars

by Daniela Freitas, Ana Rita F. Coelho, Ana Coelho Marques, João Dias, Olga Amaral, Manuela Lageiro and Manuela Simões

Sci 2026, 8(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/sci8010012 (registering DOI) - 9 Jan 2026

Abstract

The winemaking industry represents one of the most important sectors of the Mediterranean agrifood economy, generating large amounts of solid residues, especially grape pomace. The study aimed to evaluate during two consecutive harvest years the influence of the production system (conventional vs. organic) and cultivar on the mineral, chemical, and antioxidant composition, as well as the colorimetric properties, of grape pomaces obtained from four Vitis vinifera L. cultivars in Alentejo-Portugal. The results showed that mineral composition was significantly affected by both production system and cultivar, with organic grape pomace showing higher K and Mn contents, whereas Ca and Cu showed consistently higher content under conventional. Protein content tended to increase under organic production, while fiber and fat were overall higher in conventional, particularly in the first year. Sugars displayed strong cultivar specificity, with Arinto showing the highest concentrations (30 to 40%), and considering all cultivars, total phenolic content ranged between 4000 ando 9000 mg GAE/100 g, while antioxidant capacity varied among cultivars and years. Colorimetric parameters were essentially influenced by cultivar and harvest year rather than production system. The PCA revealed that PC1 (44.06%) represented a gradient associated with mineral and antioxidant composition, while PC2 (21.26%) reflected minor variation in color and sugars, and the hierarchical clustering distinguished Syrah and Alicante Bouschet as the cultivars most responsive to production system, whereas Aragonez and Arinto exhibited greater compositional stability across years. Overall, the findings indicate that both cultivar and management practices (organic and conventional) influence the compositional profile of grape pomace, with organic showing a tendency to enhance K, Mn, protein, and antioxidant parameters, whereas conventional practices favored higher levels of Ca, Cu, and fiber. The results provide valuable insights for the valorization of grape pomace and the development of sustainable viticultural strategies in Mediterranean environments. Full article

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14 pages, 1836 KB

Open AccessArticle

IgG Subclass Profiles of HLA Antibodies Enhance Prediction of C1q-Binding in Kidney Transplant Recipients

by Hyeyoung Lee, Jin Jung, Ae-Ran Choi and Eun-Jee Oh

Diagnostics 2026, 16(2), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics16020207 (registering DOI) - 9 Jan 2026

Abstract

Background/Objectives: While standard Luminex single antigen bead (SAB) detects total IgG antibodies, qualitative differences among IgG subclasses may influence their immunologic risk. In particular, complement fixing ability, assessed via C1q binding, is linked to poor transplant outcomes. This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between IgG subclasses and C1q-binding activity in HLA antibodies and to define clinically relevant subclass-specific mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) thresholds for predicting complement binding. Methods: We analyzed 4189 HLA IgG bead reactions from sera of 37 kidney transplant recipients using SAB assays for total IgG, IgG1-4 subclasses, and C1q-binding. IgG subclasses were assessed using a modified SAB assay with subclass-specific monoclonal secondary antibodies. Results: IgG reactivity (MFI ≥ 1000) was observed in 15.3% of beads (639/4189), with 31.0% (198/639) also positive for C1q binding. IgG⁺C1q⁺ beads exhibited significantly higher MFIs compared with IgG⁺C1q⁻ beads. IgG1 showed positive correlations with both total IgG (r_s = 0.5439, p < 0.0001) and C1q MFIs (r_s = 0.4042, p < 0.0001), with the strongest correlations at HLA-DQ. Among subclass-positive beads, IgG1 predominated and was strongly associated with C1q binding, whereas isolated IgG2 or IgG4 positivity was rarely C1q-binding. ROC analysis identified an IgG1 MFI threshold of >837 to predict C1q positivity with 73.2% sensitivity and 92.3% specificity, while the cutoff for total IgG MFI was >7881 with 85.4% sensitivity and 88.9% specificity. At the patient level, IgG1-positive immunodominant DSAs were more frequent in antibody-mediated rejection than in non-rejection biopsies Conclusions: IgG1 predominates among complement-fixing antibodies and correlates strongly with total IgG and C1q binding. Quantitative IgG subclass assessment, especially IgG1, may serve as a useful predictor of complement activation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Clinical Laboratory Medicine)

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14 pages, 498 KB

Open AccessArticle

Intrusion Detection for Internet of Vehicles CAN Bus Communications Using Machine Learning: An Empirical Study on the CICIoV2024 Dataset

by Hop Le and Izzat Alsmadi

Future Internet 2026, 18(1), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18010042 (registering DOI) - 9 Jan 2026

Abstract

The rapid integration of connectivity and automation in modern vehicles has significantly expanded the attack surface of in-vehicle networks, particularly the Controller Area Network (CAN) bus, which lacks native security mechanisms. This study investigates machine learning-based intrusion detection for Internet of Vehicles (IoV) environments using the CICIoV2024 dataset. Unlike prior studies that rely on highly redundant traffic traces, this work applies strict de-duplication to eliminate repetitive CAN frames, resulting in a dataset of unique attack signatures. To ensure statistical robustness despite the reduced data size, Stratified K-Fold Cross-Validation was employed. Experimental results reveal that while traditional models like Random Forest (optimized with ANOVA feature selection) maintain stability (F1-Macro ≈ 0.64), Deep Learning models fail to generalize (F1-Macro < 0.55) when denied the massive redundancy they typically require. These findings challenge the “near-perfect” detection rates reported in the literature, suggesting that previous benchmarks may reflect data leakage rather than true anomaly detection capabilities. The study concludes that lightweight models offer superior resilience for resource-constrained vehicular environments when evaluated on realistic, non-redundant data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 2024 and 2025 Feature Papers from Future Internet’s Editorial Board Members)

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13 pages, 622 KB

Open AccessReview

Nucleoside Diphosphate Kinases and Arginine Kinase in Trypanosoma cruzi: Versatile Enzymes at the Crossroads of Metabolism, Stress Adaptation, and Drug Development

by Chantal Reigada, Melisa Sayé, Fabio Augusto Digirolamo and Mariana Reneé Miranda

Kinases Phosphatases 2026, 4(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/kinasesphosphatases4010002 (registering DOI) - 9 Jan 2026

Abstract

Trypanosoma cruzi is the protozoan parasite responsible for Chagas disease, a neglected tropical disease caused by trypanosomatids. Its success as pathogen relies on remarkable metabolic adaptability, stress tolerance, and complex interactions with mammalian hosts. Among the proteins contributing to these processes, nucleoside diphosphate kinases (NDPKs) and arginine kinase (AK) have emerged as central enzymes for parasite metabolism. NDPKs, beyond their canonical role in nucleotide homeostasis, are implicated in DNA repair and oxidative stress responses and are also secreted enzymes. AK, on the other hand, serves as a unique energy-buffering system absent in mammals, supporting parasite growth and adaptation to oxidative and metabolic stresses, including modulation of host immunity. Both enzymes display distinct subcellular localizations all along the parasite and through the life cycle, linking them to multiple roles important for parasite biology and survival. Recent studies have highlighted the impact of interfering these enzymes with several compounds on the viability of the organisms, suggesting new avenues to explore them as drug targets. This review provides a general overview of NDPKs and AK in T. cruzi, aiming to underline their relevance to a broader context of trypanosomatids. Their study not only broadens our understanding of parasite biology but also opens perspectives for applied research, including therapeutic alternatives for Chagas and related diseases. Full article

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14 pages, 16432 KB

Open AccessArticle

Interfacial Interlocking Characteristics in Al/Mg Friction Stir Welding and Their Effects on Mechanical Properties

by Xiaowei Lei, Yang Xu, Peng Jiang, Liyang Chen, Shujin Chen, Yifan Lv, Qi Gao and Xiaoru Zhuo

Coatings 2026, 16(1), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings16010078 (registering DOI) - 9 Jan 2026

Abstract

Friction stir welding (FSW) was employed to achieve a reliable joining of 2 mm thick dissimilar metals, 6061 aluminum alloy and AZ31B magnesium alloy. This study revealed the evolution of interfacial interlocking features and their impact on the mechanical properties of the joints under different welding speeds (25–35 mm/min). The results indicate that the Al/Mg FSW joint interface exhibits a strip-like interlaced structure, the morphological characteristics of which are closely related to the welding speed. For quantitative analysis, the ratio of interlocking length to plate thickness (embedding ratio) was used as a quantitative indicator of the structural interlocking feature. As the welding speed increased from 25 mm/min to 35 mm/min, the embedding ratio decreased from 13.2 to 7.9, and the average thickness of the intermetallic compound (IMC) layer decreased from 2.71 μm to 2.19 μm. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) results confirmed that the Al/Mg FSW joint interface consists of a bilayer of IMCs, specifically Al₃Mg₂ and Al₁₂Mg₁₇, with thicknesses of 220 nm and 470 nm, respectively. Tensile testing of joints with different embedding ratios demonstrated that the tensile strength of the welded joint exhibits a positive correlation with the embedding ratio, reaching a maximum of 178 MPa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metallic Materials: Corrosion Protection and Surface Engineering)

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