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Systems
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Applying Systems Thinking to Enhance Ecosystem Services
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Applying Systems Thinking to Enhance Ecosystem Services

A special issue of Systems (ISSN 2079-8954). This special issue belongs to the section "Systems Practice in Social Science".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 November 2025 | Viewed by 8211

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Benjamin L. Turner

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Agriculture, Agribusiness and Environmental Science, Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Ag Mech Bldg., 1310 W. Avenue B, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
Interests: agricultural systems; systems analysis; natural resource management; ecological modeling; soil science
Dr. Erica Rieder

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27607, USA
Interests: participatory modeling; systems thinking; system dynamics; wildlife conservation; natural resource governance; human dimensions
Dr. Hector Menendez

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Natural Resource Management, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57006, USA
Interests: grazing livestock; systems thinking; system dynamics; modeling; precision livestock management

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Ecosystem goods and services–those provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural products and processes that sustain all life on Earth–are increasingly perturbed, distorted, or degraded as growth in human society continues to push against ecological limits. Unless the management of these processes is crafted in such a way that they are conserved and preserved with future generations in mind, the cascading effects of persistent disturbances threaten both human and ecological health long-term. Traditional “best management practices” in one domain consistency fall short of their goals due to compensating feedback (often unrecognized) which arise out of the underlying complex structures that cross-cut domains. Unfortunately, prevailing mental models of decision makers still overwhelmingly fail to account for such complexity. One of the essential distinctions that separates the systems thinking perspective from these prevailing mental models throughout society is that human societies and economies are subsystems of the global ecosystem (rather than the contrary). As a discipline, systems thinking can help policy makers, regulators, and managers improve natural resource decision making by recognizing, describing, communicating, and testing system structures and feedback that were previously ignored.

This Special Issue of Systems invites contributions from scientists and practitioners from all backgrounds and experiences whose work is aimed at improving the health, quality, resiliency, and management of ecosystem goods and services. We are interested in submissions utilizing a variety of methodological perspectives (from both systems thinking and system dynamics modeling) and welcome both original research and review articles. Of secondary interest are systems thinking applications to enhance teaching and learning about ecosystem goods and services in educational contexts (in both primary or higher education, either natural or social science disciplines).

Potential systems thinking application areas may include (but are not limited to) the following topics, how they impact (and are in turn impacted by) provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural ecosystem services, their conservation and management:

  • Soil and watershed resources;
  • Soil nutrient cycling and management;
  • Water supply provisioning;
  • Water quality regulation;
  • Climate regulation;
  • Flora, fauna, and fungi biological services;
  • Flora, fauna, and fungi conservation and management;
  • Agroecosystem processes and their goods and services;
  • Management and public policy pertaining to soil, water, biodiversity, or agroecosystem goods and services;
  • Systems thinking archetype case studies or applications;
  • Systems thinking pedagogy for ecosystem education.

Dr. Benjamin L. Turner
Dr. Erica Rieder
Dr. Hector Menendez
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Systems is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • systems thinking
  • system dynamics
  • ecosystem services
  • environmental stewardship
  • ecological conservation
  • ecosystem management
  • teaching and learning about ecosystem dynamics

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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19 pages, 6218 KiB  
Article
Toward Resilient Implementation of Land Degradation Neutrality via Systemic Approaches
by Jaime Martínez-Valderrama, Jorge Andrick Parra Valencia, Tamar Awad, Antonio J. Álvarez, Rocío M. Oliva, Juanma and Víctor Castillo
Systems 2025, 13(6), 408; https://doi.org/10.3390/systems13060408 (registering DOI) - 24 May 2025
Abstract
Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) is an ambitious initiative by the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) to tackle land degradation. Inspired by the “no net loss” concept, LDN seeks to counterbalance unavoidable land degradation—primarily driven by food systems—through targeted regenerative actions at [...] Read more.
Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) is an ambitious initiative by the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) to tackle land degradation. Inspired by the “no net loss” concept, LDN seeks to counterbalance unavoidable land degradation—primarily driven by food systems—through targeted regenerative actions at multiple scales—such as regenerative agriculture or grazing practices that simultaneously support production and preserve land fertility. The objective is to ensure that degradation does not surpass the 2015 baseline. While the UNCCD’s Science–Policy Interface provides guidance and the LDN Target Setting Programme has led many countries to define baselines using agreed indicators (soil organic carbon, land use change, and primary productivity), concrete intervention strategies often remain poorly defined. Moreover, the voluntary nature of LDN has limited its effectiveness. A key shortcoming is the lack of integrated planning. LDN should function as a “Plan of Plans”—a coordinating framework to align policies across sectors and scales, reconciling conflicting agendas in areas such as food, energy, and water. To this end, we advocate for a systemic approach to uncover synergies, manage trade-offs, and guide decision-making in complex socio-ecological landscapes. Land degradation is intricately linked to issues such as food insecurity, land acquisitions, and transboundary water stress. Although LDN is implemented at the national level, its success also depends on accounting for global dynamics—particularly “LDN leaks,” where land degradation is outsourced through international trade in food and raw materials. In an increasingly complex world shaped by globalization, resource depletion, and unpredictable system dynamics, effective responses demand an integrated socio-ecological management approach. LDN is not simply a strategy to address desertification. It offers a comprehensive framework for sustainable resource management, enabling the balancing of trade-offs and the promotion of long-term resilience. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applying Systems Thinking to Enhance Ecosystem Services)
28 pages, 6799 KiB  
Article
Spatiotemporal Changes and Driving Forces of the Ecosystem Service Sustainability in Typical Watertown Region of China from 2000 to 2020
by Zhenhong Zhu, Chen Xu, Jianwan Ji, Liang Wang, Wanglong Zhang, Litao Wang, Eshetu Shifaw and Weiwei Zhang
Systems 2025, 13(5), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/systems13050340 - 1 May 2025
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Abstract
Quantitative assessment of the ability of the ecosystem service (ES) and its driving forces is of great significance for achieving regional SDGs. In view of the scarcity of existing research that evaluates the sustainability of multiple ES types over a long time series [...] Read more.
Quantitative assessment of the ability of the ecosystem service (ES) and its driving forces is of great significance for achieving regional SDGs. In view of the scarcity of existing research that evaluates the sustainability of multiple ES types over a long time series at the township scale in a typical Watertown Region, this study aims to address two key scientific questions: (1) what are the spatiotemporal changes in the ecosystem service supply–demand index (ESSDI) and ecosystem service sustainability index (ESSI) of a typical Watertown Region? and (2) what are the key factors driving the changes in ESSI? To answer the above two questions, this study takes the Yangtze River Delta Integrated Demonstration Zone (YRDIDZ) as the study area, utilizing multi-source remote sensing and other spatiotemporal geographical datasets to calculate the supply–demand levels and sustainable development ability of different ES in the YRDIDZ from 2000 to 2020. The main findings were as follows: (1) From 2000 to 2020, the mean ESSDI values for habitat quality, carbon storage, crop production, water yield, and soil retention all showed a declining trend. (2) During the same period, the mean ESSI exhibited a fluctuating downward trend, decreasing from 0.31 in 2000 to 0.17 in 2020, with low-value areas expanding as built-up areas grew, while high-value areas were mainly distributed around Dianshan Lake, Yuandang, and parts of ecological land. (3) The primary driving factors within the YRDIDZ were human activity factors, including POP and GDP, with their five-period average explanatory powers being 0.44 and 0.26, whereas the explanatory power of natural factors was lower. However, the interaction of POP and soil showed higher explanatory power. The results of this study could provide actionable ways for regional sustainable governance: (1) prioritizing wetland protection and soil retention in high-population-density areas based on targeted land use quotas; (2) integrating ESSI coldspots (built-up expansion zones) into ecological redline adjustments, maintaining high green infrastructure coverage in new urban areas; and (3) establishing a population–soil co-management framework in agricultural–urban transition zones. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applying Systems Thinking to Enhance Ecosystem Services)
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24 pages, 3752 KiB  
Article
The Impact of System Models on Systems Thinking in the Context of Climate Change in Elementary School
by Sven Frey, Maik Beege, Alexander Renkl and Werner Riess
Systems 2025, 13(4), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/systems13040220 - 23 Mar 2025
Viewed by 416
Abstract
In the context of climate change, the implementation of education for sustainable development (ESD) is of particular importance in schools. Developing key competencies, such as systems thinking to understand complex relationships, is essential in teaching students how to solve sustainability-related problems through ESD. [...] Read more.
In the context of climate change, the implementation of education for sustainable development (ESD) is of particular importance in schools. Developing key competencies, such as systems thinking to understand complex relationships, is essential in teaching students how to solve sustainability-related problems through ESD. Previous research has shown that using system models in the classroom can foster systems thinking. This study investigated the effects of using alternative system models with varying visualization of temporal developments in developing different facets of systems thinking based on a heuristic structural competence model. Overall, 293 elementary school students were assigned to one of four groups (a qualitative system model without time representation vs. a qualitative system model with time representation vs. a quantitative system model with time representation vs. the control group) and participated in a five-lesson classroom intervention in pre-post-test design. The results showed a large effect of fostering systems thinking in all experimental groups compared to the control group. The qualitative system models led to higher learning gains than the quantitative system model, especially with system modeling and solving complex problems, which requires higher systems thinking skills. The results were interpreted by referring to situational interest in interacting with the respective system model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applying Systems Thinking to Enhance Ecosystem Services)
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25 pages, 4272 KiB  
Article
Why Is Reducing the Dead Zone in the Gulf of Mexico Such a Complex Goal? Understanding the Structure That Drives Hypoxic Zone Formation via System Dynamics
by Luis Mier-Valderrama, Jorge Ledezma, Karl Gibson, Ambrose Anoruo and Benjamin Turner
Systems 2024, 12(9), 326; https://doi.org/10.3390/systems12090326 - 26 Aug 2024
Viewed by 3699
Abstract
The Northern Gulf of Mexico hosts a severe dead zone, an oxygen-depleted area spanning 1,618,000 hectares, threatening over 40% of the U.S. fishing industry and causing annual losses of USD 82 million. Using a System Dynamics (SD) approach, this study examined the Mississippi–Atchafalaya [...] Read more.
The Northern Gulf of Mexico hosts a severe dead zone, an oxygen-depleted area spanning 1,618,000 hectares, threatening over 40% of the U.S. fishing industry and causing annual losses of USD 82 million. Using a System Dynamics (SD) approach, this study examined the Mississippi–Atchafalaya River Basin (MARB), a major contributor to hypoxia in the Gulf. A dynamic model, developed with Vensim software version 10.2.1 andexisting data, represented the physical, biological, and chemical processes leading to eutrophication and simulated dead zone formation over time. Various policies were assessed, considering natural system variability. The findings showed that focusing solely on nitrogen control reduced the dead zone but required greater intensity or managing other inputs to meet environmental goals. Runoff control policies delayed nutrient discharge but did not significantly alter long-term outcomes. Extreme condition tests highlighted the critical role of runoff dynamics, dependent on nitrogen load relative to flow volume from upstream. The model suggests interventions should not just reduce eutrophication inputs but enhance factors slowing down the process, allowing natural denitrification to override anthropogenic nitrification. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applying Systems Thinking to Enhance Ecosystem Services)
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Review

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28 pages, 2234 KiB  
Review
Applying Systems Thinking to Sustainable Beef Production Management: Modeling-Based Evidence for Enhancing Ecosystem Services
by Luis O. Tedeschi, Demian C. Johnson, Alberto S. Atzori, Karun Kaniyamattam and Hector M. Menendez III
Systems 2024, 12(11), 446; https://doi.org/10.3390/systems12110446 - 23 Oct 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2821
Abstract
We used systems thinking (ST) to identify the critical components of beef cattle production through the lens of ecosystem services (ES), offering a holistic approach to address its adverse externalities. We identified eight critical feedback loops in beef production systems: (i) grazing and [...] Read more.
We used systems thinking (ST) to identify the critical components of beef cattle production through the lens of ecosystem services (ES), offering a holistic approach to address its adverse externalities. We identified eight critical feedback loops in beef production systems: (i) grazing and soil health, (ii) manure management and soil fertility, (iii) feed efficiency and meat production, (iv) water use and soil moisture, (v) cultural services and community engagement, (vi) energy use, (vii) carbon sequestration and climate regulation, and (viii) environmental impact. Our analysis reveals how these interconnected loops influence each other, demonstrating the complex nature of beef production systems. The dynamic hypothesis identified through the loops indicated that improved grazing and manure management practices enhance soil health, leading to better vegetation growth and cattle nutrition, which, in turn, have a positive impact on economic returns to producers and society, all of which encourage the continuation of interlinked beef and ecosystem stewardship practices. The management of beef production ES using ST might help cattle systems across the globe to contribute to 9 of the 17 different United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals, including the “zero hunger” and “climate action” goals. We discussed the evaluation framework for agrifood systems developed by the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity to illustrate how ST in beef cattle systems could be harnessed to simultaneously achieve the intended environmental, economic, social, and health impacts of beef cattle systems. Our analysis of the literature for modeling and empirical case studies indicates that ST can reveal hidden feedback loops and interactions overlooked by traditional practices, leading to more sustainable beef cattle production outcomes. ST offers a robust framework for enhancing ES in beef cattle production by recognizing the interconnectedness of ecological and agricultural systems, enabling policymakers and managers to develop more effective and sustainable strategies that ensure the long-term health and resilience of humans and ES. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applying Systems Thinking to Enhance Ecosystem Services)
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