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Ecosystem Services in the Planning and Sustainable Development of Urban Green Spaces

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A special issue of Sustainability (ISSN 2071-1050). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Sustainability and Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 15 June 2026 | Viewed by 14005

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Wei Hou

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Guest Editor

Research Center of Natural Resources Survey and Monitoring, Chinese Academy of Surveying and Mapping, Beijing 100036, China
Interests: ecological modelling; simulation and optimization of ecological networks; quantification and assessment of landscape structure and landscape change; ecological indicators; environmental impact assessment; spatial statistics; remote sensing applications
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Dr. Chunxiao Zhang

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Guest Editor

Department of Geographic Information Science, School of Information Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China
Interests: knowledge- and data-driven geographic simulation; virtual geographic environments; urban thermal environment simulation; urban flood control
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Cheng Li

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Guest Editor

Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, China
Interests: remote sensing and GIS applications; regional development and planning; ecosystem services modelling

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The term urban green spaces (UGSs) refers to all urban greenery whether composed of natural, semi-natural, or artificial elements located within, around, and between urban areas at all spatial scales. UGSs provide a variety of ecosystem services that are essential for human health, wellbeing, and the overall sustainability of urban environments including, but not limited to, air and water purification, climate regulation, pollination, flood prevention, leisure and recreation, and biodiversity conservation. There is a growing interest in incorporating the concept of ecosystem services into urban planning frameworks to ensure that green spaces are designed and managed in a way that maximizes their benefits to society. This involves identifying trade-offs between different land use options and designing urban landscapes that are both functional and resilient. Developing effective planning tools and techniques that can help identify priority areas for conservation and restoration of UGSs in a manner that is based on their ecosystem service potential is a key research area. It is also vital to understand how the public values and uses UGSs. This involves studying public preferences, perceptions, and behaviors related to ecosystem services to ensure that planning initiatives are responsive to community needs. From a macro point of view, it is also worth exploring the effects of urbanization on the supply of and demand for ecosystem services.

In this Special Issue, original research articles and reviews are welcome, and research areas may include, but are not limited to:

Valuation methods for quantifying ecosystem services in urban areas;
Spatiotemporal variation characteristics of ecosystem services in urban areas;
The trade-off–synergy relationship between ecosystem services provided by USGs;
Habitat fragmentation, connectivity, and their impacts on ecological processes;
Supply-demand matches and mismatches of ecosystem services;
The relationship between ecosystem services and human wellbeing;
The spatial optimization of USGs.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Wei Hou
Dr. Chunxiao Zhang
Dr. Cheng Li
Guest Editors

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Keywords

urban green spaces
ecosystem services
supply–demand relationship
trade-offs/synergies
driving factors
spatiotemporal variation
human wellbeing

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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32 pages, 14295 KB

Open AccessArticle

How Do External Environments Shape the Cultural Ecosystem Services of Urban Parks to Promote Sustainable Urban Development? An Empirical Study of Multi-Travel Scenes in 15-Min Living Circles in Chengdu, China

by Qidi Dong, Binzhu Wang, Mingming Chen, Jiaxi He and Yingyin Yang

Sustainability 2026, 18(9), 4177; https://doi.org/10.3390/su18094177 - 22 Apr 2026

Viewed by 361

Abstract

In light of the accelerating process of global urbanization, the quality of cultural ecosystem services (CES) in urban parks has become a core metric for efforts to promote urban livability and sustainable cities. However, previous research has failed to consider the differential impacts of the external environment across various travel scenes. In this study, 32 parks in Chengdu serve as the empirical data, and public CES perception data are extracted from social media comments via text mining. Based on a unified 15 min time threshold, we delineate the service scope for four travel scenes and employ geographically weighted regression and piecewise regression models to analyze the spatial heterogeneity, driving mechanisms and threshold effects associated with the relationship between external environmental factors and park CES. The findings indicate that the external environment’s influence on CES exhibits a “scene-factor-scale” adaptation pattern. Walking scenes are influenced primarily by land-use and population factors; in contrast, cycling scenes rely on the availability of shared bicycle facilities, and public transport and driving scenes are driven by economic vitality and traffic-support factors, respectively. Five critical thresholds are identified, including a 40% impervious surface area. This research proposes scene-based optimization strategies and helps enhance the “external environment–travel behavior–spatial characteristics” coupling framework, thereby serving as a scientific reference for efforts to improve 15 min living circles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Services in the Planning and Sustainable Development of Urban Green Spaces)

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50 pages, 9504 KB

Open AccessArticle

What Drives Residents’ Divergent Perceptions of Cultural Ecosystem Services in Urban Park Green Spaces? A Dual-Source Analysis Synergizing Social Media and Survey Data

by Xiaokang Li, Zhuofan Ye, Lin Lei, Yiwu Wen and Junwen Huang

Sustainability 2026, 18(5), 2578; https://doi.org/10.3390/su18052578 - 6 Mar 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 703

Abstract

In the context of rapid urbanization and the pursuit of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), cities face multifaceted challenges such as high population density, limited green space, ecosystem degradation, and an insufficient supply of ecological products, all of which undermine urban sustainability. As crucial ecological units, urban park green spaces (UPGS) play a vital role in alleviating environmental pressures and providing cultural ecosystem services (CES) that are essential for human well-being and social sustainability. However, systematic insight into how residents perceive and value CES, along with the underlying drivers, remains underdeveloped, impeding the advancement of refined park management practices. Based on 12,083 social media texts, this study employed BERTopic topic modeling to identify five core dimensions of CES perception: recreational services (RS), aesthetic experiences (AE), health-promoting activities (HA), social interactions (SI), and educational services (ES). Additionally, four underlying drivers with corresponding measurable indicators were also identified: residents’ socioeconomic backgrounds (RSB), external built environment of parks (EBE), internal landscape composition (ILC), and quality of services management (QSM). Subsequently, using 313 valid questionnaires and geographic park data, a Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) framework was constructed to analyze the influence mechanisms of EBE, ILC, and QSM on CES perception differences, with residents’ satisfaction with CES serving as the measure of their perceived CES levels. Hierarchical regression analysis was further employed to examine the moderating effects of RSB on these driving pathways. The findings reveal the following: (1) Significant synergies and heterogeneities existed among CES dimensions, with notable synergistic effects observed between AE and SI, as well as between HA and RS. (2) EBE, ILC, and QSM significantly influenced CES perception differences (p < 0.05). EBE affected these differences through pathways such as EBE → ILC → QSM → CES and EBE → QSM → CES. Notably, QSM was identified as the most critical mediating factor affecting CES perception differences. (3) Age exerted a significant positive moderating effect on the QSM → CES pathway, while monthly income showed a marginally significant negative moderating trend on the ILC → QSM pathway. This study elucidates the multi-level driving mechanisms underlying differences in residents’ perceptions of CES in UPGS. A key innovation lies in the integration of large-scale social media text data with questionnaire surveys, combined with the application of the BERTopic model and PLS-SEM to analyze these perceptual differences. The findings offer both theoretical foundations and practical insights for landscape optimization and service enhancement in park planning and management, contributing to the development of more equitable, resilient, and sustainable urban environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Services in the Planning and Sustainable Development of Urban Green Spaces)

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28 pages, 8664 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Dimensional Coupling Perspective on the Compatibility of Ecosystem Service Supply and Demand in Megacities and Future Scenario Simulation: The Case of Shanghai

by Jiafang Huang, Shaofeng Chen, Chenxi Su, Miaomiao Yan, Han Chen and Zheng Ding

Sustainability 2026, 18(5), 2195; https://doi.org/10.3390/su18052195 - 25 Feb 2026

Viewed by 413

Abstract

Amid global climate change and rapid urbanization, megacities such as Shanghai confront prominent ecological challenges. A critical issue is the growing mismatch between the supply of and demand for urban green space (UGS) ecosystem services. This study aims to explore the supply–demand compatibility of Shanghai’s UGS ecosystem services and simulate future scenarios. Guided by the SSP1-2.6 scenario, it integrates the PLUS model, InVEST model, and nSFCA method to conduct dynamic analysis, quantifying supply–demand alignment and identifying imbalance areas. Results show a significant spatial mismatch: high demand but low supply in Shanghai’s inner ring and low demand but high supply in the outer ring. UGS attractiveness presents a core-concentrated and peripheral-diffused pattern by level. By 2030, a coordinated supply framework of “city-level dominance, community-level support, and neighborhood-level supplementation” will form, improving supply–demand alignment, though accessibility gaps persist. The study reveals that urbanization, planning policies, and population–spatial expansion asynchrony drive these patterns, providing scientific decision-making support for optimizing Shanghai’s green space planning and building an ecologically livable city. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Services in the Planning and Sustainable Development of Urban Green Spaces)

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30 pages, 11141 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping Spatial Synergies and Trade-Offs: A Geographically Weighted Analysis of Ecosystem Services and Carbon Sequestration in Southern Italy

by Federica Isola, Bilge Kobak, Sabrina Lai, Francesca Leccis, Federica Leone and Corrado Zoppi

Sustainability 2026, 18(4), 2146; https://doi.org/10.3390/su18042146 - 22 Feb 2026

Viewed by 736

Abstract

The transition towards climate neutrality requires the development of spatially explicit planning approaches that account for territorial differences and land-use dynamics. Within this conceptual framework, this study has the objective of identifying and discussing spatially explicit planning approaches that can support the transition to climate neutrality in different regional spatial contexts. With reference to this research question, a methodological framework is introduced and applied that is designed to support climate neutrality through spatial planning strategies. Carbon sequestration (CS) serves as a key metric to evaluate both the current state and the temporal evolution of this process, examined in connection with the provision of specific ecosystem services (ESs) within the relevant spatial setting. The work is structured as follows. An approach is developed to define the provision of ESs. Drawing on previous research and detailed assessments of environmental, landscape, and socio-cultural features, the study considers the following ESs: maintaining or improving habitat quality to sustain the life cycles of wild species valuable to humans; regulating climate by mitigating land surface temperature; agricultural and forestry production; and nature-based recreational opportunities. Moreover, spatial relationships between CS capacity and ES provision are examined through geographically weighted regressions, allowing comparisons across Basilicata, Campania, and Sardinia, three Regions in southern Italy forming the Italian Mezzogiorno. The multifunctional characteristics of ES supply contributes to optimizing CS capacity and advancing climate neutrality goals. In particular, in all three regional contexts, high values of CS capacity elasticity are recognized in relation to habitat quality and ground temperature mitigation, and very low elasticity conditions as regards the supply of recreational ESs and agricultural and forestry production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Services in the Planning and Sustainable Development of Urban Green Spaces)

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27 pages, 17115 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Spatial–Temporal Evolution Analysis of Urban Green Space Exposure Equity: A Case Study of Hangzhou, China

by Yuling Tang, Xiaohua Guo, Chang Liu, Yichen Wang and Chan Li

Sustainability 2026, 18(2), 1131; https://doi.org/10.3390/su18021131 - 22 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 647

Abstract

With the continuous expansion of high-density urban forms, residents’ opportunities for daily contact with natural environments have been increasingly reduced, making the equity of urban green space allocation a critical challenge for sustainable urban development. Existing studies have largely focused on green space quantity or accessibility at single time points, lacking systematic investigations into the spatiotemporal evolution of green space exposure (GSE) and its equity from the perspective of residents’ actual environmental experiences. GSE refers to the integrated level of residents’ contact with urban green spaces during daily activities across multiple dimensions, including visual exposure, physical accessibility, and spatial distribution, emphasizing the relationship between green space provision and lived environmental experience. Based on this framework, this study takes the central urban area of Hangzhou as the study area and integrates multi-temporal remote sensing imagery with large-scale street view data. A deep learning–based approach is developed to identify green space exposure, combined with spatial statistical methods and equity measurement models to systematically analyze the spatiotemporal patterns and evolution of GSE and its equity from 2013 to 2023. The results show that (1) GSE in Hangzhou increased significantly over the study period, with accessibility exhibiting the most pronounced improvement. However, these improvements were mainly concentrated in peripheral areas, while changes in the urban core remained relatively limited, revealing clear spatial heterogeneity. (2) Although overall GSE equity showed a gradual improvement, pronounced mismatches between low exposure and high demand persisted in densely populated areas, particularly in older urban districts and parts of newly developed residential areas. (3) The spatial patterns and evolutionary trajectories of equity varied significantly across different GSE dimensions. Composite inequity characterized by “low visibility–low accessibility” formed stable clusters within the urban core. This study further explores the mechanisms underlying green space exposure inequity from the perspectives of urban renewal patterns, land-use intensity, and population concentration. By constructing a multi-dimensional and temporally explicit analytical framework for assessing GSE equity, this research provides empirical evidence and decision-making references for refined green space management and inclusive, sustainable urban planning in high-density cities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Services in the Planning and Sustainable Development of Urban Green Spaces)

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25 pages, 6601 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ecological Security Assessment Based on Sensitivity, Connectivity, and Ecosystem Service Value and Pattern Construction: A Case Study of Chengmai County, China

by Yaoyao Zhao, Yuan Feng, Qing Liu, Yixian Mo, Shuhai Zhuo and Peng Zhou

Sustainability 2025, 17(23), 10724; https://doi.org/10.3390/su172310724 - 30 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 856

Abstract

Against the backdrop of continuous natural space loss and accelerated urbanization, considerable attention has been directed toward balancing economic development demands with the protection of fragile ecosystems within limited spatial boundaries to achieve regional sustainable development. This study therefore focuses on Chengmai County, a small-scale region prioritizing both green development and ecological conservation. Land-use changes and trends in ecosystem services value (ESV) from 2000 to 2020 were analyzed. An ecological security assessment model was developed, integrating ecosystem services, ecological sensitivity, and landscape connectivity, which enabled the identification of areas with high ecological security value as ecological sources. Ecological corridors and nodes were extracted using the minimum cumulative resistance model and the gravity model, culminating in the construction of Chengmai County’s ecological security pattern through overlay analysis. The main findings are summarized as follows: (1) Construction land expanded rapidly between 2000 and 2020. The ecological sensitivity of Chengmai County displayed a spatial distribution pattern of “high in the south, low in the north,” while ESV exhibited a pattern of “high in the central-south and low in the northeast,” showing an overall increasing trend. (2) The overall ecological security status was relatively favorable. A total of 10 ecological nodes and 45 ecological corridors were identified, including 16 core corridors. (3) Based on these analyses, an ecological security pattern described as “one axis, two belts, and three zones” was established for Chengmai County. This study provides a practical spatial strategy for ecological conservation and sustainable development in Chengmai County and offers a transferable methodological framework for similar coastal regions facing development pressures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Services in the Planning and Sustainable Development of Urban Green Spaces)

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23 pages, 31410 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Evolution and Driving Factors of the Cooling Capacity of Urban Green Spaces in Beijing over the Past Four Decades

by Chao Wang, Chaobin Yang, Huaiqing Wang and Lilong Yang

Sustainability 2025, 17(21), 9500; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219500 - 25 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1040

Abstract

Urban green spaces (UGS) are crucial for mitigating rising urban land surface temperatures (LST). Rapid urbanization presents unresolved questions regarding (a) seasonal variations in the spatial co-distribution of UGS and LST, (b) the temporal and spatial changes in UGS cooling, and (c) the dominant factors driving cooling effects during different periods. This study focuses on Beijing’s Fifth Ring Road area, utilizing nearly 40 years of Landsat remote sensing imagery and land cover data. We propose a novel nine-square grid spatial analysis approach that integrates LST retrieval, profile line analysis, and the XGBoost algorithm to investigate the long-term spatiotemporal evolution of UGS cooling capacity and its driving mechanisms. The results demonstrate three key findings: (1) Strong seasonal divergence in UGS-LST correlation: A significant negative correlation dominates during summer months (June–August), whereas winter (December–February) exhibits marked weakening of this relationship, with localized positive correlations indicating thermal inversion effects. (2) Dynamic evolution of cooling capacity under urbanization: Urban expansion has reconfigured UGS spatial patterns, with a cooling capacity of UGS showing an “enhancement–decline–enhancement” trend over time. Analysis through machine learning on the significance of landscape metrics revealed that scale-related metrics play a dominant role in the early stage of urbanization, while the focus shifts to quality-related metrics in the later phase. (3) Optimal cooling efficiency threshold: Maximum per-unit-area cooling intensity occurs at 10–20% UGS coverage, yielding an average LST reduction of approximately 1 °C relative to non-vegetated surfaces. This study elucidates the spatiotemporal evolution of UGS cooling effects during urbanization, establishing a robust scientific foundation for optimizing green space configuration and enhancing urban climate resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Services in the Planning and Sustainable Development of Urban Green Spaces)

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22 pages, 2016 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Perceived Cultural Ecosystem Services in Urban Green Spaces Using Big Data and Machine Learning: Insights from Fragrance Hill Park in Beijing, China

by Lingbo Fu, Hongpeng Fu and Chengyu Xiong

Sustainability 2025, 17(4), 1725; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17041725 - 19 Feb 2025

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3317

Abstract

Cultural ecosystem services (CESs) are essential for the sustainable development and management of urban green spaces. However, there remains a gap in leveraging big data and unsupervised machine learning to comprehensively evaluate perceived CESs. This study introduces a hybrid research methodology integrating latent dirichlet allocation (LDA) and importance–performance analysis (IPA) to analyze 20,087 user-generated reviews of Fragrance Hill Park in Beijing from Meituan. The key findings are the following: (1) ten types of CESs were identified, including five related to personal well-being, four to public well-being, and one bridging both categories; (2) the most significant dimensions were “recreational activities”, “aesthetic appreciation”, “physical well-being”, and “mental well-being”; (3) users expressed positive sentiments toward “history and culture”, “mental well-being”, and “religious engagement”, while “social relations” received the most negative feedback; (4) IPA results highlight “recreational activities” and “aesthetic appreciation” as priority areas for improvement. This study provides a scalable, data-driven framework for evaluating CESs in urban green spaces. The insights gained can inform urban green space management and policy decisions to enhance user experiences and promote sustainable urban development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Services in the Planning and Sustainable Development of Urban Green Spaces)

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14 pages, 2954 KB

Open AccessArticle

Coordination Analysis Between Urban Livability and Population Distribution in China’s Major Urban Agglomerations

by Yingfeng Ran, Wei Hou, Jingli Sun, Liang Zhai, Chuan Du and Jingyang Li

Sustainability 2024, 16(23), 10438; https://doi.org/10.3390/su162310438 - 28 Nov 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2485

Abstract

The mismatch between urban livability and population distribution can result in overcrowding and excessive pressure on ecosystem services if population growth surpasses urban capacity. Conversely, if urban expansion outpaces population needs, it can lead to underutilized infrastructure and inefficient land use. This study aims to assess the coordination between urban livability and population distribution in five major urban agglomerations in China: Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH), Yangtze River Delta (YRD), Pearl River Delta (PRD), Mid-Yangtze River (MYR), and Chengdu–Chongqing (CC). A comprehensive index for urban livability is established, from the aspects of social–economic development and ecosystem service. Additionally, a Coordination Distance Index (CDI) is developed to measure the relationship between urban livability and population distribution. Data from 2010, 2015, and 2020 are analyzed to evaluate the coordination levels and trends across the five urban agglomerations. The results show that from 2010 to 2020, most cities within these urban agglomerations experience improvements in their coordination levels, with the most notable advancements in the PRD and YRD regions. By 2020, the PRD and YRD were classified as having “high coordination”, while BTH, MYR, and CC were categorized as having “moderate coordination”. However, certain cities, such as Chengde in BTH, Shanghai in YRD, Ya’an in CC, and Zhuhai in PRD, still exhibited “low coordination”, highlighting areas requiring spatial planning adjustments. This study introduces a method for quantitatively assessing the coordination between urban livability and population distribution, providing essential insights for policymakers and urban planners to refine urbanization development strategies and population regulation policies in China’s major urban agglomerations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Services in the Planning and Sustainable Development of Urban Green Spaces)

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23 pages, 2307 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Assessing Cultural Ecosystem Services in Sponge City Infrastructure: A Systematic Review and Framework Proposal

by Nuan Han, Roziya Binti Ibrahim and Mohd Sallehuddin Bin Mat Noor

Sustainability 2025, 17(11), 5130; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17115130 - 3 Jun 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2223

Abstract

Urbanization has significantly transformed ecological landscapes and created challenges in sustaining both environmental functionality and cultural values. In response, China’s Sponge City Infrastructure (SPI) aims to enhance urban water resilience by integrating green and blue infrastructure. While the ecological benefits of SPI have been widely studied, the cultural ecosystem services (CES) it provides remain underexplored. This study systematically reviews 61 empirical articles to evaluate how CES has been addressed in SPI-related research. Bibliometric analysis was conducted to identify CES research trends and to systematically categorize CES types, assessment methods, and evaluation indicators in SPI-related studies. The findings reveal a dominant use of non-monetary assessment methods, led by questionnaire surveys (47.5%), while monetary approaches were rarely applied. However, several limitations were identified, including the geographic concentration of studies in a few major cities, the scarcity of research on abstract CES categories (e.g., inspiration and sense of place), and the lack of measurable indicators in nearly half of the reviewed studies. To address these issues, this study proposes a context-specific CES assessment framework aligned with China’s socio-cultural conditions and planning priorities in sponge city development. The framework, based on the reviewed literature, provides a preliminary tool for evaluating CES in sponge city contexts. This work contributes to the integration of cultural ecosystem services into urban ecological planning and offers insights for sustainable development in rapidly urbanizing regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Services in the Planning and Sustainable Development of Urban Green Spaces)

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