Irony and Inner Death in Dante’s Inferno
Abstract
:- Irony
The core of this analysis is Cassian’s, but the Master and Benedict explicitly call the process an ascent and Gehenna/hell, the source of the fear without which one might not turn to Christ.Therefore, when the monk has ascended all these steps of humility, he will soon attain that perfect love of God which expels the fear through which all he had previously obeyed not without dread he will begin to accomplish without any effort, as if naturally, out of long training, no longer from the fear of Gehenna, but from the love of Christ, and from that good training itself and from delight in the virtues.18
- John the Scot Eriugena and the restoration of nature
The bite of grief comes from the meeting [concursus] of two movements which [either] support [obviare] or oppose [resistere] each other. In humans, these two movements are the natural will [i.e., the synderesis] and the deliberative will [the conscience], since both move. These meet [concurrere] in the bite of grief when the conscience indicates that something which has been done is not just. And they oppose [obviare] each other when the natural will [that is, the synderesis] detests what is unjust while what is unjust pleases the deliberative will. And so [the natural and the deliberative wills] oppose [obviare] each other when each is active in its own function, in such a way that the one, [illa, the former] that is, the natural will [the synderesis], efficaciously detests that which is not just, while the other [ista, the latter, that is the deliberative will, the conscience], adheres immutably to it [that is, to that which is unjust].33
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1 | “Prima mors animam nolentem pellit e corpore, secunda mors animam nolentem tenet in corpore; ab utraque morte communiter id habetur, ut quod non uult anima de suo corpore patiatur”. (The first death expells the unwilling soul from the body. The second death holds the unwilling soul in the body. Both deaths are arranged so that the soul suffers from the body against its will.) Augustinus Hipponensis, De ciuitate Dei, 21, 3, line 30; p. 760. |
2 | American Heritage Dictionary, “irony”, (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1973), 692a. |
3 | See the chapter, “Inner Death”, (Bernstein 2017, pp. 67–98). |
4 | On irony see (Freccero 1984). I gladly acknowledge my debt to John Freccero whose lectures at conferences inspired me greatly at a difficult time in my career. |
5 | Gregorius Magnus, Moralia in Iob 9.65.97: “Sicut mors exterior ab anima dividit carnem, ita mors interior a Deo separat animam”. My translation. |
6 | Greg. Mor. 13.29.34. CCSL 143A, p. 687: “Perfecta vita est imitatio mortis”. |
7 | For other works that consider views of death in late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, see (Brown 1999, pp. 21–50, 51–85). The second of Brown’s lectures also appeared as (Brown 1997). See also (Paxton 1990); (Borst 1992, pp. 215–43); (Rebillard 1994); (Geary 1994, pp. 77–92). |
8 | “Morte cordi mittatur in gehennam”. Augustinus Hipponensis 1995. Book 1, line 661. |
9 | (Jung, 2009), 267a. Christian Gaillard, calls Einzelsein “individuation”. (Gaillard 2017), Kindle edition, p. 16. |
10 | (Jung, 2009, p. 267b). Cited by (Boccassini 2018, pp. 26–51) at 31. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26596953. The interpolation “from death” is Jung’s own interlinear revision. (accessed on 26 April 2018). |
11 | Jacqueline Amat says that Jerome imagines himself already in hell. (Amat 1985, p. 220). |
12 | Jean Cassien, Institutions cénobitiques 4.39.3, lines 27–33 (1965, p. 180): “Quae cum fuerit in ueritate possessa, confestim te ad caritatem, quae timorem non habet, gradu excelsiore perducet, per quam uniuersa, quae prius non sine poena formidinis obseruabas, absque ullo labore uelut naturaliter incipies custodire non iam contemplatione supplicii uel timoris ullius, sed amore ipsius boni et delectatione uirtutum”. |
13 | Augustinus Hipponensis, Enarrationes in Psalmos, psalmus 42, par. 6, linea 13; CCSL 38. Dolor enim animae tristitia dicitur; molestia uero quae fit in corpore dolor dici potest, tristitia non potest sed ex dolore corporis plerumque anima contristatur. Interest tamen quid doleat, et quid contristetur. Dolet enim caro, tristis est anima”. For roots of the idea of dolor animi in pre-Christian authors such as Cicero, see (Lössl 2004, pp. 575–99) at 597, note 95. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23969597 (accessed on 26 April 2018). |
14 | Aug. Enarr. In Ps. 40; 136, par. 5, line 15: “Inuenisti enim te dolore affectum grauiter, tristitia alicuius mali, unde forte praesumseras te non fore tristem; inuenit te dolor inferni”. |
15 | De ciuitate Dei, libri XXII, 21, 9, lines 34–36; (1955, p. 775): “[C]orpore sic dolente animus quoque sterili paenitentia crucietur”. Dante agrees: “sanza pro si pente,” Inferno, 11.42. |
16 | “… [Q]uibus huiusmodi terror utilis fuerat, flagellabat, horrorem incutit mortalibus sensibus et al.iquid se agere putat calces aduersus stimulum iaciendo, ut cum de morte carnis accusat dei prouidentiam, morte cordis mittatur in gehennam”. Augustinus Hipponensis, Contra adversarium legis et prophetarum. ed. Klaus-D. Daur Corpus Christianorum. Series Latina; 49 (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 1985), Book 1, line 660. |
17 | RM 10, 11: “Primum itaque humilitatis gradum in scala caeli ascendit discipulus, si timorem Dei sibi ante oculos semper ponens, obliuionem omni hora fugiat et semper sit memor omnia, que praecepit Deus, ut quomodo et gehenna contemnentes Dominum de peccatis incendat, et uita aeterna quid timentibus Deum praeparet, animo suo semper reuoluat”. |
18 | RB 7, 67–69: “Ergo, his omnibus humilitatis gradibus ascensis, monachus mox ad caritatem Dei perveniet illam quae perfecta foris mittit timorem; per quam universa quae prius non sine formidine observabat, absque ullo labore velut naturaliter ex consuetudine incipiet custodire, non iam timore gehennae, sed amore Christi et consuetudine ipsa bona et delectatione virtutum”. Based on the Latin in Fry’s bilingual edition, the translations are nonetheless my own. |
19 | San Isidoro, Los tres libros de las “Sentencias”. Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos. Santos Padres Españoles 2 (Madrid: La Editorial Catolica, 1971) book 1, cap. 28, §1; p. 299: “Duplex damnatorum poena est in gehenna, quorum et mentem urit tristitia, et corpus flamma”. Note that this quotation continues: [The action of the flame and of tristitia is] “iuxta vicissitudinem, ut qui mente tractaverunt quod perficerent corpore, simul et animo puniantur et corpore”. |
20 | On Smaragdus, see: (Rädle 1995, pp. 2011–12; Grégoire 1990, pp. 959–61; Leclercq 1984, pp. 37–51; 1988, pp. 1583–84; Paschini 1953, pp. 819–20; Barry 1989, pp. 3–9; LePree 2023, pp. 61–77; Noble 2022, pp. 391–404; Ponesse 2006, pp. 367–92. Doi: 10.1484/J.RB.5.100559; Hill 1992, pp. 203–37; Dubreucq 1986, pp. 7–36; Witters 1975; Wilmart 1922, pp. 350–59). |
21 | Smaragdus of St. Mihiel 1974; David Barry, 2007. Translations are my own. |
22 | Smaragdus, 131, lines 3–10, quoting Gregorius Magnus, Regula Pastoralis 3.29; PL 77, 109C: “Misericors enim deus eo citius peccata cordis abluit, quo haec exire ad opera non permittit; et cogitata nequitia tanto citius solvitur, quanto ad effectum operis districtius non ligatur; et quam super haec sit facilis venia ostendit: Qui dum se adhuc promittit petere, hoc quod se petere promittebat obtinuit, quatenus quia usque ad opus non venerat culpa, usque ad cruciatum non perveniret poenitentia, sed cogitata adflictio mentem tergeret quam tantummodo cogitata iniquitas inquinarat”. |
23 | Smaragdus, 7, 4; p. 163, lines 22–24: “Tanto ergo fit quisque vilior deo, quanto pretiosior sibi; tanto pretiosior deo, quanto propter [ed.: per] eum vilior sibi …”. Cf. Gregorius Magnus, Moralia in Job 18.38, line 9, ed. M. Adriaen, Corpus Christianiorum, Series Latina 143A (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 1979–1981), 925: “[T]anto unaquaeque anima fit pretiosior ante oculos dei, quanto prae amore ueritatis despectior fuerit ante oculos suos”. Or again: “Tanto ergo fit quisque uilior deo quanto pretiosior sibi; tanto pretiosior deo quanto propter eum uilior sibi: quia humilia respicit et al.ta a longe agnoscit”. |
24 | Smaragdus, 7, 52; p. 186, lines 8–12: “Vermis enim humilior cunctis animantibus esse videtur et vilior. Nutritus enim vermis ex ligno quanto fragilior, tanto esse probatur et purior. Cui comparatur monachus, qui quanto in hoc saeculo fuerit dispectior, infirmus et vilior, tanto apud deum sanctior invenitur et mundior”. Smaragdus’s taste for these biblical paradoxes is apparent, as he paraphrases 1 Cor 1.25; 1 Cor. 1.27; and 1 Cor 3.19 at Smaragdus 7, 50; p. 185, lines 6–7: “Apud saeculum enim istum se iustus cognoscit stultum, ut inveniatur sapiens apud deum”. |
25 | Smaragdus 7, 65; p. 191, line 8: “[H]umiliemur ad gloriam”. In his commentary on Luke 18.14, Bede uses this same phrase. In contrast to those who promote themselves to ruin, “let us,” he says, “humble ourselves to glory”. In Lucae Euangelium Expositio 5, 18 line 1179; p. 325. |
26 | “Vnusquisque itaque in sua conscientia intra semet ipsum aut praemia recipiet aut poenas luet”. CCCM Iohannis Scotti seu Eriugenae Periphyseon, Édouard Jeauneau (ed.) lib 5, CM 165, p. 165, line 5372; De Divisione, PL 122: 978B. |
27 | On Origen, see (Bernstein 1993, pp. 305–13; 2017, pp. 73–74, 92, 97–98). |
28 | “Infernus itaque qui a Graecis AΔE [Hades], hoc est tristitia uel deliciarum priuatio”. Ibid. line 4255; PL 122, col. 954C; |
29 | “Naturam siquidem rerum uisibilium et inuisibilium diligenter rimantes, locum suppliciis invenire non potuerunt, nisi in libidinosae uoluntatis malorum hominum et angelorum egestate rerumque (quas intemperanter amauerant) defectu et privatione. Ex quibus tristitia nascitur, qua rationabilium animarum irrationabiles appetitus siue in hac uita siue in futura torquentur”. Ibid., line 4274; PL 122: 955A. |
30 | “divinae videlicet imaginis dignitatem restitui” Ibid., p. 123, line 3983; PL 122: 948D. |
31 | Thomas Aquinas, 1956; p. 334b. Cf. Idem 1857; Vol. 7, part 2, p. 1102a. |
32 | Ibid., “Et haec receptio similatur illi receptioni qua anima recipit similitudines rerum”. |
33 | “Haec autem est ex concursu duorum moventium sibi invicem obviantium et resistentium. Ista duo moventia sunt in homine voluntas naturalis et deliberativa, quarum utraque movet. Ista concurrunt per conscientiam dictantem, aliquod factum esse indebitum; et tunc obviant, quando naturalis detestatur indebitum, et deliberativae placet; tunc autem resistunt, quando utraque in suo actu viget, ita quod illa efficaciter detestatur, et ista immutabiliter adhaeret”. Commentum in Quartum Librum Sententiarum, d 50, q 3 (Quaracchi: Collegium S. Bonaventurae, 1889), vol. 4, p. 1052a. On this passage I acknowledge help from Barbara Faes de Mottoni and the late Giles Constable. |
34 | My translation. I have used the edition of Charles S. Singleton, vol. 1: Inferno. Bollingen Series 70 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970) and his translations, except as noted. |
35 | My translation (with help from Jonathan Beck). |
36 | “Si vero quis malo ardore concupiscentie, cupiditatis, invidie, sive ire comburitur, oportet etiam quod secundum illum exterius operetur opera, scilicet carnis et mortis”. https://dante.dartmouth.edu/search_view.php?doc=132751260460&cmd=gotoresult&arg1=0 (accessed on 15 December 2024). |
37 | See above, Note 29. “Naturam siquidem …”. |
38 | There are earlier examples of this development, e.g., in Canto 25 Vanni Fucci gives the figs to God. “From this time forth the serpents were my friends,” line 4. Here, Dante begins to understand that the punishments are just. |
39 | “Chi fa honore al villano fa onta a Dio.” Cited from Guido da Pisa’s commentary to Inferno XXXIII.150 under the word “cortesia” as found in the Dartmouth Dante Project, https://Dante.Dartmouth.EDU, accessed 15 December 2024. |
40 | My translation. |
41 | My tranlsation. Emphasis mine. |
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Bernstein, A.E. Irony and Inner Death in Dante’s Inferno. Religions 2025, 16, 402. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040402
Bernstein AE. Irony and Inner Death in Dante’s Inferno. Religions. 2025; 16(4):402. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040402
Chicago/Turabian StyleBernstein, Alan E. 2025. "Irony and Inner Death in Dante’s Inferno" Religions 16, no. 4: 402. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040402
APA StyleBernstein, A. E. (2025). Irony and Inner Death in Dante’s Inferno. Religions, 16(4), 402. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040402