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Progress in 3D Printing of Polymeric Materials

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Processing and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2026 | Viewed by 9490

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Dr. Doina Dimonie

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National Institute for Research and Development in Chemistry and Petrochemistry, 060021 Bucharest, Romania
Interests: polymers; polymer modifications; polymeric compounds; polymeric composites; polymeric nanocomposites; 3D printing; designed functional properties for target applications
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Additive Manufacturing is a rapid fabrication technology utilizing layer-by-layer material deposition that presents numerous advantages over the traditional manufacturing processes, such as possibility to achieve complex parts in fewer process steps, great flexibility of the working procedure, low material waste, etc. Currently, the potential of three-dimensional (3D) and recently of four-dimensional (4D) printing technology in the fabrication of advanced polymeric compounds is increasing.

The Special Issue will cover the complex theme of the current and prospective advances related to the following topics:

New polymers (e.g., piezoelectric poly(vinylidene fluoride) polymer, etc.) and compounds with improve mechanical properties for prototyping and other applications.
Advances in 3D/4D printing for polymer composites; thermoplastic composites with various primary reinforcements such as carbon nanotubes, graphene carbon fibers, etc.
Polymeric nanocomposites with improved thermal, mechanical, and electrical performances. The influence of nanofillers, nanoplatelets, nano clay, etc. on mechanical properties of the build object. Distribution of the functional fillers and the influence of the topological shapes on the properties and functional characteristics of the 3D printed products.
Smart (e.g., shape memory, self-healing, and environmental responsiveness) polymers/compounds/composites/nanocomposites for 4D printing.
New printing filaments, printing inks, photosensitive resins, and printing powders.
The optimization of 3D/4D printing technology; the post-processing treatments; process simulation for defect minimization; upgrading the equipment or adjusting the printing parameters to make them more adaptable to the processing characteristics of new polymeric materials.
Standardization of tests for characterizations of fabricated samples; new approaches to functional regulation; industry standards of printing, and the types of filaments that can be used.
The application areas of 3D/4D printing: biomedicine, construction, automotive, aerospace, acoustics, textiles, and occupational therapy amongst others.

Dr. Doina Dimonie
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

3D printing
4D printing
additive manufacturing

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

24 pages, 3784 KB

Open AccessArticle

Additive Manufacturing of Shape-Changing Printlets via Powder-Based Extrusion 3D Printing of Natural Cellulose and Polyvinyl Alcohol

by Kasidit Dokhom, Pensak Jantrawut, Pattaraporn Panraksa, Suruk Udomsom, Wirongrong Tongdeesoontorn, Baramee Chanabodeechalermrung, Pornchai Rachtanapun and Tanpong Chaiwarit

Polymers 2026, 18(3), 380; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18030380 - 30 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 836

Abstract

Powder melt extrusion (PME) represents an alternative approach for personalized oral dosage forms. Furthermore, the utilization of agricultural waste has gained increasing attention because it helps reduce pollution from waste. This study investigated cellulose powders and short fibers from agricultural waste as supporting materials for the PME-based production of shape-changing levodopa printlets. Formulations containing cellulose powder (CP), cassava short fiber (CSF), and pineapple short fiber (PSF) demonstrated successful printing. The selected formulations were characterized for morphology, thermal transitions, crystallinity, shape-changing behavior, and drug release. CSF demonstrated superior printability, enhanced shape recovery, and the greatest reduction in crystallinity, supporting amorphous solid dispersion formation. Levodopa-loaded printlets showed uniform and high drug content. The formulation containing 5% CSF and levodopa exhibited the fastest initial release, attributed to its low crystallinity and Super Case II transport mechanism. Overall, this study highlights the feasibility of using natural cellulose as an additive in PME to develop sustainable, shape-changing drug delivery systems and advances PME knowledge by integrating agricultural waste derived cellulose fibers with levodopa processing that provide new insight into the material–process–performance relationship in PME systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing of Polymeric Materials)

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20 pages, 2800 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Miscibility of Some PLA-Based Bio-Hybrids Designed for 3D Printing and Medium-Life Applications on Their Physical Aging and Thermodynamic Stability

by Doina Dimonie, Silvia Mathe, Roxana Doina Trușcă, Celina Maria Damian, Maria Râpă, Ștefan-Ovidiu Dima, Ștefan Dumitru and Florin Oancea

Polymers 2026, 18(1), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010061 - 25 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 940

Abstract

The aim of this article was to identify the dependence of the physical aging of PLA-talc-PCL bio-hybrids, with or without a nucleating agent (NA), produced by melt compounding and designed for 3D printing for medium-life applications, on the degree of miscibility, and to identify a formulation with a heat deformation temperature (HDT) of practical interest and thermodynamical stability for at least two years. The obtained bio-hybrids were characterized to illustrate their miscibility and long-term thermodynamic stability, both initially and after two years. The preservation of properties over time was analyzed by examining the observed physical aging, since its can be associated with changes incompatible with 3D-printed items used as structural automative components. Without using NA, two partially miscible bio-hybrids with multiphase, polymorphic morphology were achieved, which showed strong physical aging and thermodynamic instability over two years. The use of NA led to a bio-hybrid with a relatively narrow single melting peak, which showed good miscibility, without physical aging or thermodynamic instability over the two-year period. The morpho-structural and functional characterization of the selected formulation will be further investigated and possibly corrected, to advance to the next level of scale-up. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing of Polymeric Materials)

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16 pages, 8297 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Furfuryl Resin Type—Classical and Designed for Sand 3D Printing—On Cast Iron Casting Microstructure and Surface Roughness

by Katarzyna Major-Gabryś, Dawid Halejcio, Andrzej Fijołek, Jan Marosz and Marcin Górny

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2920; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212920 - 31 Oct 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 976

Abstract

Resin-based binders are one of the main materials used in foundry molding and core sands. Self-curing sand with furfuryl resin is one of the most popular technologies in the production of molds and cores for complex, critical castings made of iron and non-ferrous alloys. It has dominated small-batch production and the production of large-sized castings. This work is part of the research on new molding sands for mold additive manufacturing (3D printing). Three-dimensional printing technology in the production of sand-casting molds and cores is finding increasing industrial application in the production of castings from non-ferrous metal alloys. The aim of the research presented in this paper was to determine the influence of furfuryl resin type (classical and designed for 3D printing of sand molds) on cast iron casting properties. The pouring parameters were elaborated on the basis of the MAGMA software. Microscopic observations of castings, produced in classical and 3D-printed molds, were conducted, as well as an assessment of the roughness of the samples. The gas emissions from molding sands with both types of furfuryl resin were tested and analyzed in the context of the roughness of the castings obtained. It was proven that molding sand with furfuryl resin designed for 3D printing was characterized by lower gas emissions, which, in the case of molding sands with organic binders, is beneficial from an environmental point of view. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing of Polymeric Materials)

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24 pages, 3974 KB

Open AccessArticle

Formulation and Structural Optimisation of PVA-Fibre Biopolymer Composites for 3D Printing in Drug Delivery Applications

by Pattaraporn Panraksa, Pensak Jantrawut, Xin Yi Teoh, Krit Sengtakdaed, Ploynapat Pornngam, Tanpong Chaiwarit, Takron Chantadee, Kittisak Jantanasakulwong, Suruk Udomsom and Bin Zhang

Polymers 2025, 17(18), 2502; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17182502 - 16 Sep 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2359

Abstract

Additive manufacturing using fused deposition modelling (FDM) is increasingly explored for personalised drug delivery, but the lack of suitable biodegradable and printable filaments limits its pharmaceutical application. In this study, we investigated the influence of formulation and structural design on the performance of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-based filaments doped with theophylline anhydrous for 3D printing. To address the intrinsic brittleness and poor printability of PVA, cassava pulp-derived fibres—a sustainable and underutilised agricultural by-product—were incorporated together with polyethylene glycol (PEG 400), Eudragit^® NE 30 D, and calcium stearate. The addition of fibres modified the mechanical properties of PVA filaments through hydrogen bonding, improving flexibility but increasing surface roughness. This drawback was mitigated by Eudragit^® NE 30 D, which enhanced surface smoothness and drug distribution uniformity. The optimised composite formulation (P₁₀F₅E₅T₅) was successfully extruded and used to fabricate 3D-printed constructs. Release studies demonstrated that drug release could be modulated by pore geometry and construct thickness: wider pores enabled rapid Fickian diffusion, while narrower pores and thicker constructs shifted release kinetics toward anomalous transport governed by polymer swelling. These findings demonstrate, for the first time, the potential of cassava fibre as a functional additive in pharmaceutical FDM and provide a rational formulation–structure–performance framework for developing sustainable, geometry-tuneable drug delivery systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing of Polymeric Materials)

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17 pages, 4328 KB

Open AccessArticle

New 3D Ink Formulation Comprising a Nanocellulose Aerogel Based on Electrostatic Repulsion and Sol-Gel Transition

by Qing Yang, Haiyang Yu, Xiaolu Wang, Yunze Li, Dan Li and Fu Guo

Polymers 2025, 17(8), 1065; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17081065 - 15 Apr 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2168

Abstract

New 3D printing aerogel materials are environmentally friendly and could be used in environmental protection and biomedical fields. There is significant research interest in 3D printing cellulose-based aerogels since cellulose materials are biocompatible and are abundant in nature. The gel-like nature of the cellulose water suspension is suitable for 3D printing; however, the complexity and resolution of the geometry of aerogels are quite limited, mainly due to the inks’ low viscosity that fails to maintain the integrity of the shape after printing. To address this limitation, a carefully optimized formulation incorporating three key ingredients, i.e., nanofibrils (TEMPO-CNFs), 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy modified cellulose nanocrystals (TEMPO-CNC), and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), is utilized to enhance the viscosity and structural stability of the ink. This combination of cellulose derivatives utilizes the electrostatic repulsive forces between the negatively charged components to form a stable and uniformly distributed suspension of cellulose materials. Our ink formulations improve printability and shape retention during 3D printing and are optimal for DIW printing. We print by employing an all cellulose-based composite ink using a modified direct ink writing (DIW) 3D printing method, plus an in situ freezing stage to form a layer-by-layer structure, and then follow a freeze-drying process to obtain the well-aligned aerogels. We have investigated the rheological properties of the ink formulation by varying the concentration of these three cellulose materials. The obtained aerogels exhibit highly ordered microstructures in which the micropores are well-aligned along the freezing direction. This study demonstrates a strategy for overcoming the challenges of 3D printing cellulose-based aerogels by formulating a stable composite ink, optimizing its rheological properties, and employing a modified DIW printing process with in situ freezing, resulting in highly ordered, structurally robust aerogels with aligned microporous architectures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing of Polymeric Materials)

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23 pages, 5179 KB

Open AccessArticle

Polymorphism and Mechanical Behavior in Hot-Pressed 3D-Printed Polyamide Composite: Effects of Pressure and Temperature

by John Barber, Patricia Revolinsky, Jimesh Bhagatji, Diego Pedrazzoli, Sergii Kravchenko and Oleksandr Kravchenko

Polymers 2025, 17(7), 922; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17070922 - 28 Mar 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1325

Abstract

The aim of this work is to study the effect of high-temperature compaction (HTC) upon the polymorphism and the mechanical behavior of an additively manufactured (AM) carbon fiber-reinforced polyamide (PA6). Different pressure and temperature levels during HTC were tested to determine the overall effect on the mechanical behavior and material crystalline composition. Treated, carbon fiber-reinforced PA6 samples were analyzed using differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis, scanning electron microscopy, and three-point bending testing. When considered with respect to as-printed samples, an HTC temperature of 190 °C combined with 80 psi pressure resulted in an increased flexural modulus and strength of 47% and 58%, respectively. This increase was attributed to the decrease in AM-induced cracking, voids (both inside and between the beads), and crystalline solid-state transition in the PA6. The effect of pressure and temperature on the crystalline structure was discussed in terms of an increased degree of crystallinity and the amount of α-phase. Therefore, HTC can help overcome some limitations of traditional annealing, which can result in recrystallization-induced cracking which can lead to material embrittlement. The proposed HTC method demonstrates the potential in improving the mechanical behavior of AM thermoplastic composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing of Polymeric Materials)

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