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Polymer Composites: Structure, Properties and Processing, 2nd Edition

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2026) | Viewed by 13317

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Dr. Ana Pilipović

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University of Zagreb Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture, Ivana Lucica 5, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
Interests: composites materials; composites production; additive manufacturing; properties of polymers; polymer production; recycling
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Dear Colleagues,

We all know that composite materials are homogeneous materials, which are obtained by joining two or more different materials with the aim of achieving specific characteristics and properties that do not possess any of the ingredients by themselves. The combination of two or more phases (single-phase or multiphase), (each of these phases is also used as stand-alone material) and a base material (matrix) and additional material (reinforcement or filler) can form a composite.

Whether fibres or particles are used as a reinforcement in thermoplastics, thermosets, and elastomers, it is necessary to establish their structure in the overall composite and how they affect the properties. When talking about classic fibre-reinforced polymer composites, hybridization (whether mixing with different types of fibres in the weave or in different layers) certainly plays a big role because better properties are achieved. In addition, polymer composites reinforced with natural fibres or particles should also be considered, and how to increase their properties so that they can be comparable to, for example, carbon or aramid fibres.

However, for such materials to be used in industry, an important step is the production itself and how the processing parameters affect the composite products. In addition to the classic methods of processing composites regarding fibres (hand lay-up, vacuum bagging, filament winding, etc.), in recent years, this has also been achieved by additive manufacturing, the so-called 3D printing, and, for particles, by extrusion.

When production is completed, it is certainly important to establish the properties of the composite product in its application, for example, the effect of aging (various atmospheric conditions) on the mechanical properties, etc.

Even at the very end of product use, disposal, recycling, mechanical, chemical, or energy recovery (incineration) is certainly important.

Dr. Ana Pilipović
Guest Editor

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

polymer composites (polymer-polymer composites, polymer-metal composites, polymer-ceramics composites)
fibre reinforced polymer composites
particle-reinforced polymer composites
natural composites
structure and characterization of composite
properties (mechanical, thermal, rheological, fatigue performance, aging, etc.)
simulation of processing and properties of composites
processing of composites
additive manufacturing of composites
recycling

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Related Special Issues

Polymer Composites: Structure, Properties and Processing in Polymers (13 articles)
Polymer Composites: Structure, Properties and Processing, 3rd Edition in Polymers

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Research

28 pages, 19108 KB

Open AccessArticle

Role of Bio-Based and Petroleum-Origin Monomers on the Tailoring of Thermoplastic Elastomer (TPE) Properties and Structure as a Matrix for Composites with Plant-Based and Inorganic Fillers

by Sandra Paszkiewicz, Zaida Ortega, Izabela Irska, Konrad Walkowiak, Adam Piasecki and Mateusz Barczewski

Polymers 2026, 18(4), 513; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18040513 - 19 Feb 2026

Viewed by 704

Abstract

This study investigates how natural fillers of different origins and morphologies influence the structural, thermal, rheological, and mechanical properties of thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs). Two series of materials were prepared: one based on a biobased matrix, poly(butylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate)-block-poly(tetramethylene oxide) (PBF-PTMO), and one based on a petroleum-derived matrix, poly(butylene terephthalate)-block-poly(tetramethylene oxide) (PBT-PTMO). Both series incorporated a range of natural modifiers, i.e., lignocellulosic fibers and ground fractions of Arundo donax L., cyanobacterial biomass (Spirulina platensis), and silica-rich mineral dust originating from volcanic stone quarries. The materials were obtained via melt blending, while the reference matrices (neat block copolymers) were synthesized through melt polycondensation. The chemical structure and limiting viscosity number (LVN) of the neat matrices were confirmed, while differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) provided insight into their morphology and phase composition. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was employed to evaluate the morphology and distribution of the modifiers within the polymer matrices. To assess how the fillers influenced processing windows and performance, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), oscillatory rheological measurements, and tensile testing were performed. The results provide insight into structure–property relationships governing natural filler–TPE interactions and support the development of more sustainable elastomeric composites with tailored performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites: Structure, Properties and Processing, 2nd Edition)

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24 pages, 7507 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Polyolefin Elastomer Modified Hybrid Inorganic Filler System for Enhanced Performance in HDPE Double-Wall Corrugated Pipe Production

by Muhammet Ali Unal, Aysenur Sungur Bastug, Ece Yigit Ates, Ceyda Selcuk, Nisa Nur Ak, Recep Tolga Mutlu, Hilmi Saygin Sucuoglu and Bahadir Kaya

Polymers 2026, 18(3), 385; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18030385 - 31 Jan 2026

Viewed by 3846

Abstract

This study presents the design and performance evaluation of an advanced inorganic filler system composed of calcite (CaCO₃) and talc (Mg₃Si₄O₁₀(OH)₂), modified with a polyolefin elastomer (POE), and integrated into a high-density polyethylene (HDPE) carrier resin with process additives such as erucamide, montan wax, pe wax, and PIB. The composite was developed to improve the structural integrity and longevity of HDPE double-wall corrugated pipes. Comprehensive characterization of the filler was performed using TGA–DSC, FTIR, SEM–EDX, XRD, and XRF analyses, confirming the presence of every individual component and homogeneous dispersion in the compound. Pilot-scale extrusion pipe trials confirmed uniform filler dispersion when evaluated by SEM-EDX analysis. The filler addition increased both the density and MFI values up to 1.03 g/cm³ and 1.5 g/10 min, respectively, while test results indicated oxidation induction times (OIT) reaching up to 40 min. The developed filler-added pipes demonstrated a significantly higher ring stiffness value of 12.20 kN/m², exceeding the minimum requirement of 8 kN/m² specified for the SN8 class pipes. The POE effectively attenuated rigidity and brittleness typically induced by mineral fillers, yielding this superior stiffness while maintaining adequate ring flexibility. These findings highlight the potential of this tailored filler system to advance the production of lightweight, mechanically robust corrugated piping solutions for demanding infrastructure applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites: Structure, Properties and Processing, 2nd Edition)

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27 pages, 17548 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of the Overmolding Technique for the Preparation of Basalt Fiber (BF)-Based Composite, the Comparative Study of Poly(ethylene terephthalate)/Polycarbonate—PET/PC and Poly(butylene terephthalate)—PBT/PC Blends

by Jacek Andrzejewski, Wiktoria Gosławska, Michalina Salamaga, Weronika Zgoła and Mateusz Barczewski

Polymers 2026, 18(1), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010054 - 24 Dec 2025

Viewed by 641

Abstract

The presented study is focused on the evaluation of the mechanical and heat resistance performance of the polyester-based injection-molded components. For comparative purposes, we used a poly(ethylene terephthalate)/polycarbonate blend (PET/PC) and a poly(butylene terephthalate)/polycarbonate (PBT/PC) mixture, where both types of polymer blends were used as a matrix for different types of basalt fiber (BF)-reinforced composites. The investigated molding procedure consists of injection overmolding of the composite prepreg (insert). During the technological procedure, various material configurations were used, including overmolding with both unmodified blends and a composition with additional short basalt fibers. The results confirmed that the best balance of properties was obtained for complex parts reinforced with short BF and overmolded insert, where the tensile modulus can reach 8 GPa, while the impact strength was more than 30 kJ/m². The results of comparative tests indicate a significantly higher strength of overmolding joints for PET/PC-based materials. The relatively low heat deflection temp. (HDT) of around 70 °C after the injection molding procedure can be successfully improved by the annealing treatment, where the HDT can reach around 120 °C. The structural tests revealed that, besides some differences in crystallinity between the PET- and PBT-based blends, the thermomechanical performance of the manufactured composites is almost similar. It is worth pointing out the fundamental differences in the miscibility of the investigated blend systems, where for the PBT/PC mixture structural tests confirm the miscibility of polymer phases, while PET/PC particles are immiscible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites: Structure, Properties and Processing, 2nd Edition)

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36 pages, 18724 KB

Open AccessArticle

Statistical Optimization of Graphene Nanoplatelet-Reinforced Epoxy Nanocomposites via Box–Behnken Design for Superior Flexural and Dynamic Mechanical Performance

by Júlia Mendes, Camila Prudente Magalhães, Letícia Vitorazi, Noemi Raquel Checca Huaman, Sergio Neves Monteiro, Teresa Gómez-del Río and Ulisses Oliveira Costa

Polymers 2025, 17(23), 3218; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17233218 - 3 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 856

Abstract

Graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) are efficient nanofillers for improving the mechanical and thermal properties of epoxy resins due to their high stiffness, aspect ratio, and interfacial reinforcement ability. This study employs a three-factor, three-level Box–Behnken Design (BBD) to investigate the combined effect of GNP content (0.5–3.5 wt.%), hardener concentration (9–17 phr), and post-curing temperature (30–120 °C) on DGEBA/TETA epoxy nanocomposites. Mechanical, thermal, dynamic mechanical, and morphological characterizations (flexural testing, DMA, TGA, DSC, FTIR, SEM, TEM, and AFM) established structure–property correlations. The optimized formulation (2.0 wt.% GNP, 9 phr hardener, and 120 °C post-curing) exhibited superior reinforcement, with flexural strength of 322.0 ± 12.8 MPa, flexural modulus of 9.7 ± 0.5 GPa, and strain at break of 4.4 ± 0.2%, corresponding to increases of 197%, 155%, and 91% compared with neat epoxy. DMA confirmed a rise in storage modulus from 2.9 to 7.5 GPa and a Tg of 143 °C, while TGA showed a 15 °C improvement in thermal stability. Statistical analysis identified post-curing temperature as the dominant factor governing Tg, stiffness, and thermal stability, with synergistic contributions from GNP content and hardener concentration to the overall network performance. These results surpass those of GO- and CNT-based systems, demonstrating the superior efficiency of GNPs under optimized conditions. The proposed approach provides a robust pathway for developing epoxy nanocomposites with low filler content and enhanced multifunctional performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites: Structure, Properties and Processing, 2nd Edition)

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27 pages, 36926 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Additive Manufacturing and Injection Molding of Biocomposites Reinforced with Alkali-Treated Wood Flour Derived from Recycled Wooden Pallets

by Mehmet Demir, Nilgül Çetin and Nasır Narlıoğlu

Polymers 2025, 17(15), 2004; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17152004 - 22 Jul 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1627

Abstract

Biodegradable polymer composites offer promising alternatives to petroleum-based plastics, supporting the principles of a zero waste and circular economy. This study investigates the reinforcing potential of alkali-treated wood flour derived from recycled pine (Pinus brutia Ten.) and poplar (Populus alba L.) waste wooden pallets in poly(lactic acid) (PLA) biocomposites. Wood flour was initially recovered through grinding and screening during recycling, followed by alkali treatment via a green chemistry approach to enhance interfacial bonding with the PLA matrix. The impact of alkali concentration and two fabrication methods—additive manufacturing (AM) and injection molding (IM)—on the properties of developed biocomposite materials was assessed through mechanical, physical, morphological, and thermal analyses. IM samples outperformed AM counterparts, with the IM PLA containing 30 wt% wood flour (alkali-treated with 10% solution) showing the highest mechanical gains: tensile (+71.35%), flexural (+64.74%), and hardness (+2.62%) compared to untreated samples. Moreover, the AM sample with 10 wt% wood flour and 10% alkali treatment showed a 49.37% decrease in water absorption compared to the untreated sample, indicating improved hydrophobicity. Scanning electron microscopy confirmed that alkali treatment reduced void content and enhanced morphological uniformity, while thermal properties remained consistent across fabrication methods. This work introduces a green composite using non-toxic materials and treatments, facilitating eco-friendly production aligned with zero waste and circular economy principles throughout the manufacturing lifecycle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites: Structure, Properties and Processing, 2nd Edition)

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34 pages, 4957 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Cooling Lubricants and Structural Parameters on the Tensile Properties of FFF 3D-Printed PLA and PLA/Carbon Fiber Composites

by Aljaž Rogelj, David Liović, Elvis Hozdić, Marina Franulović and Budimir Mijović

Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1797; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131797 - 27 Jun 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1208

Abstract

This study addresses the lack of comprehensive understanding regarding how both structural printing parameters and environmental factors influence the mechanical properties of additively manufactured polymer and composite materials. The main problem stems from insufficient data on the combined effects of infill density, number of perimeters, layer height, and exposure to cooling lubricants on the tensile performance of 3D-printed products, which is crucial for their reliable application in demanding environments. In this research, the influence of four critical parameters—infill density, number of perimeters, layer height, and exposure to cooling lubricants—on the tensile properties of specimens produced by fused filament fabrication (FFF), also known as fused deposition modeling (FDM), from polylactic acid (PLA) and polylactic acid reinforced with carbon fibers (PLA+CF) was investigated. Tensile tests were performed in accordance with ISO 527-2 on specimens printed with honeycomb infill structures under controlled process conditions. The results show that increasing infill density from 40% to 100% led to an approximately 60% increase in tensile strength for both PLA (from 30.75 MPa to 49.11 MPa) and PLA reinforced with carbon fibers (PLA+CF; from 17.75 MPa to 28.72 MPa). Similarly, increasing the number of perimeters from 1 to 3 resulted in a 51% improvement in tensile strength for PLA and 50% for PLA+CF. Reducing layer height from 0.40 mm to 0.20 mm improved tensile strength by 5.4% for PLA and 3.1% for PLA+CF, with more pronounced gains in stiffness observed in the composite material. Exposure to cooling lubricants led to mechanical degradation: after 30 days, PLA exhibited a 15.2% decrease in tensile strength and a 3.4% reduction in Young’s modulus, while PLA+CF showed an 18.6% decrease in strength and a 19.5% drop in modulus. These findings underscore the significant impact of both structural printing parameters and environmental exposure on tailoring the mechanical properties of FFF-printed materials, particularly when comparing unfilled PLA with carbon fiber-reinforced PLA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites: Structure, Properties and Processing, 2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 1836 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Resin Type and Placement Technique on the Hardness of Resin-Based Composites Polymerized with LED and UV Light-Curing Units

by Ayse Nurcan Duman and Arife Dogan

Polymers 2025, 17(6), 774; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17060774 - 14 Mar 2025

Viewed by 1172

Abstract

The aim of this in vitro study is to evaluate the effect of resin type and placement technique on the hardness of resin-based composites (RBCs). A total of 300 samples consisting of five RBCs (Filtek Z250 microhybrid, Filtek P60 packable, Tetric Ceram hybrid, Admira ORMOCER, and Tetric Flow flowable RBCs) were prepared. Each RBC was placed into Teflon molds with a 4 mm diameter and 2 or 8 mm depths with standard, bulk and incremental techniques and was polymerized by second-generation LED (Hilux Ledmax 1055, 229.153 mW/cm²) and UV (ELC-410, 26.106 mW/cm²) light-curing units (LCUs) in standard mode (n = 10). The Vickers hardness number (VHN) was measured from the top and bottom surfaces of the RBCs. Data were statistically analyzed with a one-way ANOVA. Multiple comparisons were made using the Tukey, Scheffe, and t-tests (p < 0.05). The VHN of the RBCs polymerized with LED and UV LCUs varied between 110.33 and 25.16 and between 104.86 and 34.20, respectively. The Tetric Flow RBC did not polymerize with the LCUs on either surface. The RBCs placed using the bulk technique could not polymerize with the UV LCU on the top surface, except for the Filtek P60 RBC, but showed a higher VHN on the bottom surface. These significant findings highlight that the hardness is specific to the RBC material and placement technique. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites: Structure, Properties and Processing, 2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 3637 KB

Open AccessArticle

Conducting Rubber Anisotropy of Electrophysical and Mechanical Properties

by Stanislav Makhno, Xianpeng Wan, Oksana Lisova, Petro Gorbyk, Dongxing Wang, Hao Tang, Yuli Shi, Mykola Kartel, Kateryna Ivanenko, Sergii Hozhdzinskyi, Galyna Zaitseva, Maksym Stetsenko and Yurii Sementsov

Polymers 2025, 17(4), 492; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17040492 - 14 Feb 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1725

Abstract

The aim of this work was to determine the anisotropy of the electrophysical and mechanical properties of rubber reinforced with a hybrid filler CNTs&CB (carbon nanotubes and carbon black) as a function of CNT content and the technological parameters of the production process. A significant difference in electrical conductivity (σ) and dielectric permittivity (ε) in three perpendicular directions was found for CNT concentrations ranging from 0 to 0.007 in volume fraction. The highest values of σ and ε were observed in the calendering direction, with slightly lower values in the perpendicular direction. This effect was attributed to the orientation of polymer molecules and CNTs along the direction of movement during calendering, as well as the disruption of the cluster structure in the transverse direction. Although the calculated percolation threshold values of the investigated system differed slightly, a correlation was observed between the mechanical and electrophysical properties of CNTs&CB rubber. This correlation enables rubber products to be designed with optimal properties tailored to the desired direction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites: Structure, Properties and Processing, 2nd Edition)

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