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Pathogens
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Detection of Indoor Fungi: Part II
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Detection of Indoor Fungi: Part II

A special issue of Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817). This special issue belongs to the section "Fungal Pathogens".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 15 July 2025 | Viewed by 10021

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Donát Magyar

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
National Center for Public Health and Pharmacy, Albert Flórián út 2-6, H-1097 Budapest, Hungary
Interests: aerobiology; fungal spore dispersal; fungal diversity
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Building dampness or mold has been shown to be associated quite consistently with a variety of adverse health effects according to reviews carried out on a long list of studies from different geographic areas by scientific bodies, including the WHO. The most relevant diseases that molds can cause are allergies, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, and infection. The prevalence of mold allergy is approximately 5% to 30% of patients with atopy. However, there are still many questions and uncertainties around other symptoms, as well as the severity of health risk represented by mold contamination. These precautions stem from many factors, e.g., the fact that the metabolism of fungi (production of mycotoxins, MVOCs, and antigens) depends on many factors; that standardized fungal extracts are not available for clinical studies; and that questionnaire-based studies assessing dampness or mold most often rely on answers from the building occupants that may underestimate the real level of fungal contamination. Finally, common mold detection methods seem to be insufficient (e.g., low volume and frequency of air samples). Detection of indoor mold growth is challenging, even for trained professionals, and modern architecture does not make the situation any easier, as building materials widely used in modern buildings (e.g., drywall, dropped ceiling, fibrous insulation materials), once wetted, offer an appropriate environment for fungal growth, which often remains unobserved by residents or even professionals.

There are many points of view from which mold problems can be discussed; our focus will be on the detection of fungi in the indoor environment. For this Special Issue of the journal Pathogens, we invite you to submit innovative research papers and review articles as well as brief communications presenting recent advances related to our knowledge of fungi in enclosed spaces, including homes, office buildings, schools, healthcare and industrial settings and extreme indoor environments (HVAC, household devices), etc. Research papers and reviews can cover any aspect of detection methods and related issues of biodiversity, substrate preference, interaction with modern building materials, (chemo)taxonomic and phylogenetic studies, metabolism, pathogenicity, and strategies for mold remediation. We look forward to your contribution.

Dr. Donát Magyar
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Pathogens is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • molds
  • fungi
  • indoor environment
  • indoor air quality and molds
  • mycotoxins
  • fungal MVOCs
  • fungal allergens
  • pathogenic fungi in the indoor environment
  • biodeterioration by fungi in the indoor environment
  • aeromycology
  • fungal diversity

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Related Special Issue

Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

19 pages, 1749 KiB  
Article
Efficiency of the Coriolis µ Air Sampling Device for Fungal Contamination Analysis of Indoor Air: A Case Study
by Mohamad Al Hallak, Thomas Verdier, Alexandra Bertron, Myriam Mercade, Pascale Lepercq, Christine Roques and Jean-Denis Bailly
Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040345 - 3 Apr 2025
Viewed by 359
Abstract
Molds are frequent indoor contaminants, where they can colonize many materials. The subsequent aerosolization of fungal spores from moldy surfaces can strongly impact indoor air quality and the health of occupants. The investigation of fungal contamination of habitations is a key point in [...] Read more.
Molds are frequent indoor contaminants, where they can colonize many materials. The subsequent aerosolization of fungal spores from moldy surfaces can strongly impact indoor air quality and the health of occupants. The investigation of fungal contamination of habitations is a key point in evaluating sanitary risks and understanding the relationship that may exist between the fungal presence on surfaces and air contamination. However, to date there is no “gold standard” of sampling indoor air for such investigations. Among various air sampling methods, impingement can be used for capturing fungal spores, as it enables real-time sampling and preserves analytical follow-up. Its efficiency varies depending on several factors, such as spore hydrophobicity, sampling conditions, etc. Sampling devices may also impact the results, with recovery rates sometimes lower than filtration-based methods. The Coriolis µ air sampler, an impingement-based device, utilizes centrifugal force to concentrate airborne particles into a liquid medium, offering flexibility for molecular analysis. Several studies have used this device for air sampling, demonstrating its application in detecting pollen, fungal spores, bacteria, and viruses, but it is most often used in laboratory conditions. The present case study, conducted in a moldy house, aims to investigate the efficiency of this device in sampling fungal spores for DNA analysis in indoor environments. The results obtained suggest that the use of this device requires an optimized methodology to enhance its efficiency and reliability in bioaerosol research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection of Indoor Fungi: Part II)
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15 pages, 11780 KiB  
Article
Fusarium spp. in Metalworking Fluid Systems: Companions Forever
by Célia Ruiz, Giulia von Känel, Stefan Burkard and Peter Küenzi
Pathogens 2024, 13(11), 990; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13110990 - 13 Nov 2024
Viewed by 911
Abstract
Water-miscible metalworking fluids (MWFs) are utilized in a variety of metal removal and forming operations. For end-use, formulation concentrates are diluted in water, creating conditions conducive to microbial growth and metabolism, possibly compromising the fluid’s integrity and mechanically obstructing filters or piping systems. [...] Read more.
Water-miscible metalworking fluids (MWFs) are utilized in a variety of metal removal and forming operations. For end-use, formulation concentrates are diluted in water, creating conditions conducive to microbial growth and metabolism, possibly compromising the fluid’s integrity and mechanically obstructing filters or piping systems. Metalworking machines offer additional habitats on surfaces that are in permanent or temporary contact with MWFs. For that reason, biocides have been incorporated into concentrates for years, but legal constraints will restrain their use in the future. While bacterial contamination of MWFs is well documented, fungal contamination is often overseen and infrequently reported in the literature. In this study, we report fungal prevalence in in-use MWFs sampled worldwide over 10 years, and we are convinced that the presence of fungi is the norm rather than the exception. In addition, we evaluated the inhibitory effect of fungicides on fungal growth, sporulation and spore viability using traditional culture-dependent methods and flow cytometry. In essence, we show that the effectiveness of these fungicides is limited and dependent on the chemical construction of the fluid. We think that the ecology created by water-diluted MWFs is of higher importance than the anti-fungal activity of single components. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection of Indoor Fungi: Part II)
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18 pages, 288 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Mycotoxins and Cytotoxicity of Airborne Molds Isolated from the Zoological Garden—Screening Research
by Kinga Plewa-Tutaj, Magdalena Twarużek, Robert Kosicki and Ewelina Soszczyńska
Pathogens 2024, 13(4), 294; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13040294 - 30 Mar 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2316
Abstract
Objective: The objective of this paper was to assess the airborne mold contamination, secondary metabolite profiles, and cytotoxicity of the dominant fungal species isolated from the air in selected rooms at a Zoological Garden. Materials and methods: Fungal concentrations were measured with MAS-100 [...] Read more.
Objective: The objective of this paper was to assess the airborne mold contamination, secondary metabolite profiles, and cytotoxicity of the dominant fungal species isolated from the air in selected rooms at a Zoological Garden. Materials and methods: Fungal concentrations were measured with MAS-100 air samplers. The collected airborne fungi were identified using a combination of morphological and molecular methods. The cytotoxicity of 84 strains belonging to two Penicillium and Aspergillus genera was determined using the quantitative colorimetric MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium salt) assay. The mycotoxins were detected using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a mass spectrometry detector. Results: The ITS gene was amplified and sequenced to identify the 132 species. For mycotoxicological and cytotoxicity analyses, 52 Penicillium isolates and 32 Aspergillus representatives were selected. Cytotoxicity was confirmed in 97.6% of cases analyzed. Using the LC-MS/MS method, 42 out of 84 strains produced at least one of the following toxins: ochratoxin A, ochratoxin B, patulin, gliotoxin, roquefortine C, griseofulvin, sterigmatocystin, fumonisin B2, moniliformin, and mycophenolic acid. Conclusions: Analytical methods for assessing the presence of mycotoxins in fungal isolates collected directly from the air have proven to be an effective tool. Our research provides new information on the occurrence of potentially toxin-producing molds within a zoo. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection of Indoor Fungi: Part II)
23 pages, 1622 KiB  
Article
Toxicity Screening of Fungal Extracts and Metabolites, Xenobiotic Chemicals, and Indoor Dusts with In Vitro and Ex Vivo Bioassay Methods
by Tuomas Hintikka, Maria A. Andersson, Taina Lundell, Tamás Marik, László Kredics, Raimo Mikkola, Magnus C. Andersson, Jarek Kurnitski and Heidi Salonen
Pathogens 2024, 13(3), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13030217 - 29 Feb 2024
Viewed by 3738
Abstract
It is controversial how useful bioassays are for identifying the in vivo toxicity of hazardous environmental exposures. In this study, fruiting bodies of forest mushrooms (n = 46), indoor mold colonies (n = 412), fungal secondary metabolites (n = 18), xenobiotic chemicals such [...] Read more.
It is controversial how useful bioassays are for identifying the in vivo toxicity of hazardous environmental exposures. In this study, fruiting bodies of forest mushrooms (n = 46), indoor mold colonies (n = 412), fungal secondary metabolites (n = 18), xenobiotic chemicals such as biocides and detergents (n = 6), and methanol extracts of indoor dusts from urban buildings (n = 26) were screened with two different bioactivity assays: boar sperm motility inhibition (BSMI) and inhibition of cell proliferation (ICP) tests. For the forest mushrooms, the toxicity testing result was positive for 100% of poisonous-classified species, 69% of non-edible-classified species, and 18% of edible-classified species. Colonies of 21 isolates of Ascomycota mold fungal species previously isolated from water-damaged buildings proved to be toxic in the tests. Out of the fungal metabolites and xenobiotic chemicals, 94% and 100% were toxic, respectively. Out of the indoor dusts from moldy-classified houses (n = 12) and from dry, mold-free houses (n = 14), 50% and 57% were toxic, respectively. The bioassay tests, however, could not differentiate the samples from indoor dusts of moldy-classified buildings from those from the mold-free buildings. Xenobiotic chemicals and indoor dusts were more toxic in the BSMI assay than in the ICP assay, whereas the opposite results were obtained with the Ascomycota mold colonies and fungal secondary metabolites. The tests recognized unknown methanol-soluble thermoresistant substances in indoor settled dusts. Toxic indoor dusts may indicate a harmful exposure, regardless of whether the toxicity is due to xenobiotic chemicals or microbial metabolites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection of Indoor Fungi: Part II)
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15 pages, 1116 KiB  
Article
Characterization of Indoor Molds after Ajka Red Mud Spill, Hungary
by Donát Magyar, Zsófia Tischner, Bence Szabó, Ágnes Freiler-Nagy, Tamás Papp, Henrietta Allaga and László Kredics
Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010022 - 26 Dec 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1783
Abstract
A red mud suspension of ~700,000 m3 was accidentally released from the alumina plant in Ajka, Hungary, on the 4th of October 2010, flooding several buildings in the nearby towns. As there is no information in the literature on the effects of [...] Read more.
A red mud suspension of ~700,000 m3 was accidentally released from the alumina plant in Ajka, Hungary, on the 4th of October 2010, flooding several buildings in the nearby towns. As there is no information in the literature on the effects of red mud on indoor mold growth, we conducted studies to answer the following question: does the heavy metal content of red mud inhibit fungal colonization in flooded houses? In order to gain knowledge on fungal spectra colonizing surfaces soaked with red mud and on the ability of fungi to grow on them, swabs, tape lifts, and air samples were collected from three case study buildings. A total of 43 fungal taxa were detected. The dominant species were Penicillium spp. on plaster/brick walls, but Aspergillus series Versicolores, Cladosporium, Acremonium, and Scopulariopsis spp. were also present. The level of airborne penicillia was high in all indoor samples. Selected fungal strains were subcultured on 2% MEA with 10−1 and 10−4 dilutions of red mud. The growth rate of most of the strains was not significantly reduced by red mud on the artificial media. The consequences of similar industrial flooding on indoor molds are also discussed in this paper. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection of Indoor Fungi: Part II)
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