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Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale, 2nd Edition
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Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale, 2nd Edition

A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineral Deposits".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 December 2026 | Viewed by 6421

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Zhensheng Shi

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Guest Editor
PetroChina Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration Development, Beijing 100083, China
Interests: shale reservoir geology; shale sedimentology; sequence stratigraphy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Tianqi Zhou

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Guest Editor
PetroChina Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration Development, Beijing 100083, China
Interests: shale gas geology; resource assessment; resource strategy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Tao Nian

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Guest Editor
School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Xi’an Shiyou University, Xi’an 710065, China
Interests: shale gas reservoir; fine description of shale gas reservoir; shale gas development; geology of shale gas development
Dr. Lucy Gomes Sant'Anna

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Guest Editor
Environmental Management Group, School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 03828-000, Brazil
Interests: clay minerals; shale characterization; sedimentary provenance and paleoclimate proxies; diagenesis and geochronology in sedimentary basins; clay interaction with natural and anthropic fluids; carbon dioxide capture and geological storage
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Spyridon Bellas

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Institute of GeoEnergy, Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas (FORTH/IG), 73100 Chania, Greece
Interests: petroleum geology; hydrocarbons; oil-gas; shale gas; geochemistry; source rocks; laminites; diatomite; sapropel; mudstones; basin development; rock eval pyrolysis; GC/MS chromatography; SEM; biostratigraphy; CO2, CH4, H2 underground storage, reservoir quality; paleo-environment; redox; MOZ
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Organic-rich shales are the main target rocks for unconventional oil and gas exploration and development across the world. A total of 35 crucial organic-rich shale layers have been identified from Mesoproterozoic to Cenozoic strata around the world. These shales are classified to their genesis under marine, marine–nonmarine transitional, and lacustrine depositional environments. Changes in climate, terrigenous flux, paleo-redox conditions, base level, primary productivity, tectonic activity causing development, the migration of partially closed deep-basin depo-centers, and of sediment accumulation rates controlled the extensive deposition and distribution of organic-rich shales. Moreover, mineralogy differences in organic-rich shales have a major impact on the diagenetic pathway and the evolution of pore systems among various lithofacies during burial. Diagenetic process and pore evolution are also very important to the physical properties of an organic-rich shale reservoir. Therefore, the modeling of the factors controlling the distribution of organic-rich shale reservoirs around the world is important for the exploration and development of unconventional oil and gas resources.

Thanks to the enthusiastic support of the academic community, the first edition of this Special Issue attracted 41 submissions and successfully published 16 high-quality papers, highlighting key advances in sedimentology, geochemistry, and shale reservoir characterization. Building on this strong foundation, the second edition aims to further explore emerging research and deepen our understanding of black shale reservoir and geochemical systems.

The geochemical characteristics and reservoir evaluation of black shales represent a new and evolving field within sedimentology. This development is crucial for predicting the formation and distribution of organic-rich shales within sedimentary basins, as well as evaluating the sweet spots for shale oil and gas. These advancements are poised to propel hydrocarbon exploration into a new era. To fully showcase the latest research findings in the characteristics of black shale reservoirs and related disciplines, and to promote the exchange of new theories, methods, and technologies among researchers in this field, we are pleased to announce the second edition of the Special Issue "Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale".

This Special Issue of Minerals aims to present a set of diversely themed articles from research focused on multi-scale controlling factors for petrophysical properties of organic-rich shales, including sedimentation, tectonic activity, diagenesis, organic matter enrichment process, and pore evolution. Potential topics of interest are as follows:

Section 1: Black Shale Lithology and Facies Characterization

  • Detailed characterization of black shale lithology and facies.
  • Methods and techniques for precise lithofacies analysis.

Section 2: Mechanisms of Organic Matter Enrichment in Black Shale

  • Processes and mechanisms driving the enrichment of organic matter in black shales.
  • Impact of various geological and environmental factors on organic matter accumulation.

Section 3: Characterization Techniques and Applications of Micro- and Nanopores in Black Shale

  • Advanced techniques for the characterization of micro- and nanopores in black shale.
  • Applications of pore characterization in understanding shale reservoir properties.

Section 4: Sedimentary and Paleogeographic Environment Studies of Black Shale

  • Research on the depositional environments of black shales.
  • Studies on paleogeographic settings and their influence on shale formation.

Section 5: Diagenetic Processes in Shale

  • Investigation of diagenetic processes affecting shale properties.
  • Impact of diagenesis on the quality and characteristics of shale reservoirs.

Section 6: Formation and Enrichment Mechanisms of Shale Oil and Gas

  • Studies on the formation processes of shale oil and gas.
  • Mechanisms driving the enrichment of hydrocarbons in shale formations.

By gathering cutting-edge research and fostering academic discourse, this Special Issue seeks to drive forward the understanding and development of black shale reservoirs, thus supporting the broader goal of advancing unconventional hydrocarbon exploration.

We look forward to your valuable contributions and to advancing the field together through this Special Issue of Minerals.

Dr. Zhensheng Shi
Dr. Tianqi Zhou
Dr. Tao Nian
Dr. Lucy Gomes Sant'Anna
Dr. Spyridon Bellas
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Minerals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • facies models and sedimentation processes
  • event sedimentology and paleoclimate transitions
  • paleoenvironment on organic matter enrichment
  • lithological, mineralogical, and geochemical analysis
  • diagenesis and pore structure evolution

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Further information on MDPI's Special Issue policies can be found here.

Related Special Issue

Published Papers (6 papers)

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22 pages, 5570 KB  
Article
Quality and Genesis of Shale Reservoir Rich in Feldspar, Taking the Qiongzhusi Formation in the Sichuan Basin of China as an Example
by Majia Zheng, Ya Wu, Junyu Chen, Zeyun Wang, Xianglu Tang, Dadong Liu and Shitan Ning
Minerals 2026, 16(6), 564; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16060564 - 24 May 2026
Viewed by 420
Abstract
Shale gas will be the focus of global oil and gas exploration in the future. As a key mineral component in shale, the characteristics and genesis of feldspar are of great significance for reservoir quality. The feldspar in the Qiongzhusi Formation shale was [...] Read more.
Shale gas will be the focus of global oil and gas exploration in the future. As a key mineral component in shale, the characteristics and genesis of feldspar are of great significance for reservoir quality. The feldspar in the Qiongzhusi Formation shale was studied through core observation, X-ray diffraction (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), and major and trace elements analysis. The results show that the content of feldspar in the Qiongzhusi Formation shale is relatively high, with an average content of 27.3%, mainly sodium feldspar. The feldspar presents various forms, such as angular clastic particles and strongly altered particles. It exhibits localized dissolution and illitetization. The feldspar in the Qiongzhusi Formation shale is multi-source, mainly provided by the mixture of felsic sedimentary rocks and granites from the upper crust. The main source areas are the Western Sichuan Block, the Motianling Block, and the Hanyang Block. Rapid sedimentation leading to rapid burial is the primary sedimentary control factor for the high initial content of feldspar in the Qiongzhusi Formation shale. During the late burial and diagenetic stages, localized fluid action, comprising the synergy between micro-scale migration and chemical reactions driven by hydrocarbon generation, acts as a key factor influencing the minor variations in feldspar content. Under a stable tectonic background, the fluids in the Qiongzhusi Formation mainly come from organic acids produced by shale hydrocarbon generation, and the influence of formation water fluids is relatively limited, with a low degree of feldspar mineral transformation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale, 2nd Edition)
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20 pages, 16206 KB  
Article
Lithofacies Control on Pore–Throat Structure and Reservoir Effectiveness in Alkaline Lacustrine Hybrid Deposits: A Case Study of the Lower Permian Fengcheng Formation, Mahu Sag, Junggar Basin
by Jiao Li, Yuanyuan Zhang, Xincai You, Wenjun He and Yang Zou
Minerals 2026, 16(5), 493; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16050493 - 7 May 2026
Viewed by 339
Abstract
The Lower Permian Fengcheng Formation (P1f) in the Mahu Sag, Junggar Basin, records an uncommon alkaline–lacustrine hybrid system where siliciclastic, volcaniclastic inputs, and endogenous carbonates jointly build strong reservoir heterogeneity. This study clarifies how depositional framework architecture and diagenetic evolution [...] Read more.
The Lower Permian Fengcheng Formation (P1f) in the Mahu Sag, Junggar Basin, records an uncommon alkaline–lacustrine hybrid system where siliciclastic, volcaniclastic inputs, and endogenous carbonates jointly build strong reservoir heterogeneity. This study clarifies how depositional framework architecture and diagenetic evolution jointly control effective pore–throat connectivity and reservoir effectiveness. We examined 55 core samples from nine wells using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), low-pressure N2 adsorption (LPNA), high-pressure mercury intrusion (HPMI), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) T2 spectra, and identified five lithofacies: siliciclastic-dominated (SDF), volcaniclastic (VTF), mixed siliciclastic–carbonate (MSCF), carbonate-dominated (CDF), and alkaline mineral-rich (AMF). Reservoir quality is strongly lithofacies-dependent and cannot be inferred from pore volume alone. The SDF and CDF are both dominated by the >200 nm domain, but only the SDF preserves a coarse pore–throat framework that sustains effective flow; the MSCF is characterized by a stronger 10–50 nm contribution and a more tortuous network, and the VTF by enrichment of the 50–200 nm domain. In the SDF, quartz is preferentially associated with the >200 nm domain and dolomite with the 50–200 nm domain, consistent with coarse residual pores preserved by rigid grains and intercrystalline or dissolution-related pores, respectively. The AMF should be treated as two subtypes: the Na-borosilicate subtype shows high >200 nm volume but very high tortuosity, whereas the Na-carbonate subtype shows co-development of the 10–50 nm and >200 nm domains with lower threshold pressure and tortuosity, indicating better pore-body–throat matching and more favorable reservoir behavior. These findings provide a lithofacies-based framework for screening effective reservoir intervals in alkaline lacustrine hybrid systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale, 2nd Edition)
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23 pages, 9754 KB  
Article
Distribution of Shale Oil, Quantitative Evaluation of Mobility, and Enrichment Mechanisms in a Lacustrine Shale from the Ordos Basin
by Kefeng Du, Yonghong He, Yunjin Ge, Xuan Tang, Jing Xu, Huifang Bai, Xiaoxiao Wei, Congsheng Bian, Jin Dong and Ziheng Guan
Minerals 2026, 16(5), 465; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16050465 - 29 Apr 2026
Viewed by 292
Abstract
The Ordos Basin hosts abundant lacustrine shale oil resources. Adequately retained hydrocarbons in source rocks, together with favorable mobility, are prerequisites for large-scale shale oil exploitation. Therefore, the quantitative characterization of retained hydrocarbon content and mobility is a core research focus in shale [...] Read more.
The Ordos Basin hosts abundant lacustrine shale oil resources. Adequately retained hydrocarbons in source rocks, together with favorable mobility, are prerequisites for large-scale shale oil exploitation. Therefore, the quantitative characterization of retained hydrocarbon content and mobility is a core research focus in shale oil exploration and development. This study investigates Chang 7 shale with varying lithofacies and geochemical characteristics. Stepwise pyrolysis and pyrolysis gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) were applied to analyze retained hydrocarbons in different occurrence states, their compositions, and biomarkers. In addition, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) combined with CO2 flooding experiments was conducted, and the collected products under different displacement pressures were analyzed using GC–MS. The aim was to quantitatively examine the variations in expelled oil volume, compositional differences during migration, and occurrence features of shale oil within reservoir micro-pores. The results show the following: (1) Organic-rich shale is characterized by higher proportions of light and medium hydrocarbons, lower heavy fractions, and elevated aromatic hydrocarbon content. In contrast, low-organic-carbon mudstone or siltstone contains more medium and heavy hydrocarbons, with lower light and aromatic fractions. The C13−/C14+ ratio increases with total organic carbon (TOC). (2) In black shale, oil displacement is mainly contributed by mesopores. At low pressures, oil expulsion is difficult and dominated by heavy hydrocarbons. When pressure reaches a threshold, the capillary-bound oil in micropores is released, increasing production and improving oil quality. Muddy siltstone shows higher displacement efficiency than black shale, with contributions from pores of all sizes. At low pressures, its expelled oil volume is larger and lighter than that of black shale. With increasing pressure, the oil yield rises significantly, and medium–large pores produce heavier fractions compared with micropores, likely because light hydrocarbons preferentially enter micropores and are less prone to dissipation. (3) The main controlling factors for shale oil enrichment include retained hydrocarbon content, mobile hydrocarbon fraction, fluidity, and engineering-related parameters. Thick shale layers with high organic matter abundance, high proportions of light–medium hydrocarbons, and favorable porosity–permeability conditions, as well as interbedded siltstone, are enriched in mobile hydrocarbons. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale, 2nd Edition)
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21 pages, 13465 KB  
Article
Microscopic Characteristics and Development Model of Phosphatic Bioclastic Laminae in the Jurassic Lianggaoshan Formation Shale, Eastern Sichuan Basin
by Cong Zhang, Weikun Chen, Yuan Zhang, Tenger Borjigin, Boran Wang, Daojun Wang, Miaomiao Liu, Wenren Zeng, Haohan Li, Ronghui Fang and Zi Wang
Minerals 2026, 16(3), 295; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16030295 - 11 Mar 2026
Viewed by 440
Abstract
Phosphatic bioclastic laminae distributed along bedding planes have been recently discovered within the Jurassic Lianggaoshan Formation shale in the eastern Sichuan Basin. However, their characteristics and potential as shale oil and gas reservoirs remain unclear. To reveal their microscopic pore structure characteristics and [...] Read more.
Phosphatic bioclastic laminae distributed along bedding planes have been recently discovered within the Jurassic Lianggaoshan Formation shale in the eastern Sichuan Basin. However, their characteristics and potential as shale oil and gas reservoirs remain unclear. To reveal their microscopic pore structure characteristics and development model, this study focuses on samples of phosphatic bioclastic laminae obtained from drilling cores in the Fuxing area of eastern Sichuan. A multi-scale analytical approach was employed, integrating micro-X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (μ-XRF), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), nitrogen adsorption, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and geochemical analyses. The results indicate that the phosphatic bioclastic laminae are primarily composed of apatite and calcite and formed in a low-energy, anoxic, semi-deep to deep lacustrine environment. They exhibit an average total porosity of 4.84% and an average TOC of 1.99 mg/g. It is 14.7% and 17.8% higher than the clay laminae, and 255.9% and 109.57% higher than the calcareous bioclastic laminae. The pore system is dominated by mesopores and macropores, encompassing multiple pore types including dissolution pores, interparticle pores, interlayer pores, organic matter-hosted pores, and micro-fractures. Notably, a well-connected nanometer-scale pore network developed within fish bone fragments contributes substantially to the storage space. These intervals integrate high organic matter richness with superior reservoir properties, demonstrating typical “source-reservoir integration” characteristics. Their pore structure is synergistically regulated by sedimentary–diagenetic processes, with a core mechanism of primary biogenic pore foundation–late diagenetic dissolution enhancement–micro-fracture connectivity. This study systematically elucidates, for the first time, the reservoir formation mechanism of the phosphatic bioclast-rich laminae in the Lianggaoshan Formation. It confirms their potential as “geological-engineering” dual sweet spots for shale oil and gas exploration, providing a new basis for sweet spot prediction and exploration deployment targeting similar phosphatic bioclastic laminae in the Sichuan Basin and analogous regions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale, 2nd Edition)
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25 pages, 38690 KB  
Article
Volcano–Sedimentary Dynamics and Hydrocarbon Prospectivity of a Continental Rift Lacustrine Basin: A Case Study from the Lower Cretaceous Xiguayuan Formation, Luanping Basin, China
by Xiaoning Liu, Zaixing Jiang, Xiaodong Yuan and Cheng Wang
Minerals 2026, 16(3), 284; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16030284 - 9 Mar 2026
Viewed by 485
Abstract
Continental rift lacustrine basins typically feature multiple sediment sources under the combined controls of volcanism, tectonics, water balance and sediment supply, resulting in complex stratigraphic successions. This complexity is particularly pronounced in fine-grained successions, which are of high interest for their potential to [...] Read more.
Continental rift lacustrine basins typically feature multiple sediment sources under the combined controls of volcanism, tectonics, water balance and sediment supply, resulting in complex stratigraphic successions. This complexity is particularly pronounced in fine-grained successions, which are of high interest for their potential to generate and accumulate hydrocarbons. Nevertheless, the mechanisms governing the sedimentary transition from volcaniclastic to siliciclastic-dominated fills within a rift cycle remain poorly constrained. The Lower Cretaceous Xiguayuan Formation in the Luanping Basin accumulated in a lacustrine setting influenced by explosive volcanism, providing an excellent archive of siliciclastic–volcaniclastic interaction. Based on field observations, core descriptions, and petrographic analysis, sixteen lithofacies have been grouped into seven facies associations, including subaqueous ignimbrite, volcanically sourced turbidites, subaqueous volcanic ridge, central-lake sedimentation, shallow-lacustrine margin deposits, low-density turbidites, and high-density turbidites. Their spatial relationships reveal two volcanic pulses and document the lake’s environmental evolution, with deep-water background sediments overlying volcaniclastics and a marked increase in siliciclastic input upsection, reflecting a transition from an underfilled, volcaniclastic-dominated underfilled lake to a siliciclastic-dominated lake. Notably, the fine-grained sediments associated with volcanism exhibit excellent hydrocarbon potential. Organic-rich claystones and carbonate laminae form a microscopic source–reservoir system, in which volcanic inputs appear to enhance organic matter preservation and promote the development of reservoir-quality layers. This study elucidates how volcanic activity modulates sedimentation and sediment supply in a deep-lacustrine rift, offering new insights into volcano-sedimentary interactions and related hydrocarbon systems in continental rift basins. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale, 2nd Edition)
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20 pages, 11423 KB  
Article
Clay Mineral Characteristics and Smectite-to-Illite Transformation in the Chang-7 Shale, Ordos Basin: Processes and Controlling Factors
by Kun Ling, Ziyi Wang, Yaqi Cao, Yifei Liu and Lin Dong
Minerals 2025, 15(9), 951; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15090951 - 5 Sep 2025
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3622
Abstract
As critical components in continental shale systems, the composition and evolution of clay minerals are fundamental to their diagenetic processes and petrophysical properties. The Chang-7 shales in the Ordos Basin exhibit abundant clay mineral content, offering a valuable case study for clay mineral [...] Read more.
As critical components in continental shale systems, the composition and evolution of clay minerals are fundamental to their diagenetic processes and petrophysical properties. The Chang-7 shales in the Ordos Basin exhibit abundant clay mineral content, offering a valuable case study for clay mineral research under moderate diagenetic conditions. This study employed XRD analysis to determine the whole-rock mineralogy, clay mineral composition, and the evolution characteristics of illite-smectite mixed-layer minerals (I/S). Comprehensive clay mineral datasets compiled from 13 newly analyzed wells and existing literature revealed distinct lateral distribution patterns. Total Organic Carbon (TOC) analysis and vitrinite reflectance (Ro) measurements provided systematic quantification of organic matter abundance and thermal maturation parameters in the studied samples. The results reveal that the Chang-7 shale exhibits a characteristic clay mineral assemblage, with I/S (average 44.2%) predominating over illite (34.7%), followed by chlorite (15.6%) and limited kaolinite (5.4%). Frequent volcanic activities provided substantial precursor materials for smectite formation, which actively participated in subsequent illitization processes, while chlorite and kaolinite distributions were predominantly controlled by provenance inputs and sedimentary facies, respectively. Inconsistencies exist between diagenetic stages inferred from I/S mixed-layer ratios and Ro values, particularly in low-maturity samples exhibiting accelerated illitization. The observed negative correlation between TOC content and mixed-layer ratios in Well YY1 and YSC Section samples demonstrates the catalytic role of organic matter in facilitating smectite-to-illite transformation. These results systematically clarify the coupled effects of sedimentary-diagenetic processes, offering new insights into the mutual interactions between inorganic and organic phases during illitization under natural geological conditions. The findings advance the understanding of Chang-7 shale oil and gas systems and offer practical guidance for future exploration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale, 2nd Edition)
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