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A special issue of Fire (ISSN 2571-6255). This special issue belongs to the section "Fire Risk Assessment and Safety Management in Buildings and Urban Spaces".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 August 2025 | Viewed by 17020

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Dr. Long Yan

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Guest Editor

School of Civil Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, China
Interests: flame-retarded materials; transparent fire-retarded coating; fire-extinguishing agent; flame-retarded wood
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Xuebao Wang

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Guest Editor

School of Fire Engineering, China People's Police University, Langfang, China
Interests: flame-retarded materials; fire-extinguishing agent

Dr. Yachao Wang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

School of Resources Engineering, Xi’an University of Architecture & Technology, Xi’an, China
Interests: flame-retarded materials; fireproof coating
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Fire is a major threat to business, commerce, and society, in which building ﬁres with the highest proportion feature rapid-fire development and difﬁcult firefighting and rescue. The application of fire-retardant materials has demonstrated success in reducing ﬁre losses by delaying or preventing products of combustion from propagating into the adjacent space. The design and application of novel and high-efficient fire-retardant materials are urgent requirements of economic and social development. Recently, many efforts have focused on nano-structured fire retardants, multifunctional fire-retardant coatings, mono-component intumescent flame retardants, bio-based flame-retardant materials, and so on. The development of fire-retardant materials and extinguishing technologies is conducive to ensuring the safety of construction and reducing the damage caused by fires.

This Special Issue titled “Fire Prevention and Flame Retardant Materials” aims to collectively disseminate advanced research in the fields of design, preparation, performance, mechanism, and application of fire-retardant materials and fire extinguishing agents.

Dr. Long Yan
Dr. Xuebao Wang
Dr. Yachao Wang
Guest Editors

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Keywords

fire-resistant coatings
flame-retarded wood
flame-retarded composites
bio-based flame retardants
fireproof glass
fire-resistant cable
fireproof door
fireproof board
fire extinguishing agent

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

14 pages, 4635 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fire Resistance and Mechanical Properties of Wooden Dou-Gong Brackets in Chinese Traditional Architecture Exposed to Different Fire Load Levels

by Zhenzhong Lai, Xin Li, Miaotian Long, Long Yan and Zhisheng Xu

Fire 2025, 8(5), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8050201 - 17 May 2025

Viewed by 142

Abstract

Dou-Gong brackets, the distinctive structural element in ancient Chinese architecture, fulfill critical roles in load transfer, span reduction, and decoration, making its preservation vital for safeguarding wooden heritage buildings. This study investigates the combustion performance and residual load-bearing capacity of key Dou-Gong bracket components—Zuo-dou, Zheng-xin-gua-gong, and Qiao—exposed to varying fire conditions. The results reveal that an increasing fire load elevates heating rates and peak temperatures of wood substrates, resulting in a significant degradation of structural integrity. At a fire load of 55 kW, the peak temperatures at the bottom, joint edge, and top of the Dou-Gong brackets reach 755.3 °C, 489.9 °C, and 620.7 °C, respectively, representing increases of 2%, 65%, and 38%, respectively, compared to those observed at a fire load of 20 kW. Moreover, the charring rate of Dou-Gong bracket increases from 0.22–0.26 mm/min at a fire load of 20 kW to 0.50–0.56 mm/min at a fire load of 55 kW, accompanied by an increase in mass loss rate from 28.5% to 36.9%. These findings highlight the significant impact of fire conditions on the fire characteristic and structural integrity of Dou-Gong brackets, providing the first quantitative evidence of their degradation under fire exposure. By addressing this vulnerability, the study contributes to the scientific preservation of ancient wooden architecture under contemporary fire risk scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Prevention and Flame Retardant Materials)

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13 pages, 2711 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on Fire Resistance of Phase Change Energy Storage Concrete Partition Walls

by Meichun Zhu, Jiangang Li, Ying Wang and Fanqin Meng

Fire 2025, 8(4), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8040128 - 27 Mar 2025

Viewed by 294

Abstract

Phase change material (PCM) concrete walls represent a new type of energy storage wall. It is of great significance to study the fire resistance of PCM concrete walls to ensure the safety of these kinds of components in service. For this reason, fire resistance tests on eight PCM concrete partition wall specimens under the conditions of the ISO-834 standard fire curve were carried out. The tested wall structures included a solid wall and a double-layer wall with an air gap. The PCM used was paraffin phase change microcapsules, which were replaced with a fine aggregate according to the principle of equal volumes, at replacement proportions of 0%, 7%, 10%, and 14%. The test results showed that explosive spalling of the PCM concrete occurred when the double-layer wall specimen with a 10% replacement proportion was heated for 31 min, and the other seven specimens met the integrity requirements after heating for 90 min. The 100 mm thick ordinary concrete solid partition wall specimen did not meet the thermal insulation requirements after 90 min. The addition of PCM and the use of a double-layer structure with an air gap can both improve the wall’s thermal insulation performance; however, it is not the case that, the greater the amount of PCM used, the better the thermal insulation performance of the wall. The reasons that the PCM concrete spalled in the double-layer wall specimen with a 10% replacement proportion are discussed. This study provides critical insights into optimizing the PCM content and wall design for fire-safe energy-efficient buildings, offering practical guidance for sustainable construction practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Prevention and Flame Retardant Materials)

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14 pages, 5152 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fire Performance Comparison of Expanded Polystyrene External Thermal Insulation Composites Systems and Expandable Graphite-Modified Surface Covers at Different Scales

by Mingwei Tang, Serge Bourbigot, Thomas Rogaume, Tsilla Bensabath, Benjamin Batiot and Virginie Drean

Fire 2025, 8(2), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8020045 - 25 Jan 2025

Viewed by 950

Abstract

Numerous fire disasters have involved thermoplastic expanded polystyrene (EPS) external thermal insulation composite systems (ETICS) on building façades. This study evaluates the flame-retardant efficiency of expandable graphite (EG)-blended EPS ETICS across different scales: micro-scale thermogravimetric (TG) analysis, small-scale bench tests, and large-scale LEPIR 2 tests. TG analysis confirmed EG’s primary role as a physical intumescent, with no significant chemical interactions detected. While EG effectively reduced heat penetration in both small-scale and large-scale fire tests, challenges arose from char layer detachment and oxidation at elevated temperatures (exceeding 540 °C). Despite these limitations, the EG-treated façade exhibited significantly lower peak temperatures compared to the untreated control in the large-scale LEPIR 2 test, with a measured temperature difference of approximately 470 °C. These findings demonstrate the potential of EG to enhance the fire safety of EPS ETICS. The small-scale test bench proved effective for preliminary material screening, providing valuable insights into ignition resistance and flame-retardant properties before proceeding to more resource-intensive large-scale evaluations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Prevention and Flame Retardant Materials)

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15 pages, 11769 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Combustion Analysis of Extruded Polystyrene via Custom Isolation Methodology

by Yanan Hou, Mei Wan, Jian Li, Fei Ren, Xiaodong Qian and Congling Shi

Fire 2025, 8(2), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8020043 - 24 Jan 2025

Viewed by 604

Abstract

This study is dedicated to an in−depth analysis of the combustion characteristics of extruded polystyrene (XPS) as a building insulation material with the aim of accurately assessing its fire risk in the built environment. Innovatively, this research employed a cone calorimeter equipped with a self−designed insulating sample holder to conduct a systematic experimental study. Additionally, it performed a comprehensive analysis of the ignition characteristics, heat release rate, fire hazard, smoke release, and toxic gas emission of XPS materials. The experimental results revealed that the combustion behavior of XPS is influenced by multiple factors, including the content of flame retardants and external heat flux, which significantly affect the fire hazard of XPS. When the thermal radiation intensity escalates from 25 kW/m² to 55 kW/m², the peak heat release rate of XPS−B1 rises from 428 kW/m² to 535 kW/m², marking an increase of 25.00%. Conversely, the peak heat release rate of XPS−B2 surges from 348 kW/m² to 579 kW/m², reflecting a substantial increase of 66.38%. This research not only provides a solid theoretical foundation and detailed experimental data for the fire behavior of XPS materials but also holds significant practical importance for enhancing the fire safety of buildings. Overall, this research contributes to the scientific understanding of XPS insulation materials and supports the development of more effective fire prevention measures in construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Prevention and Flame Retardant Materials)

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22 pages, 7489 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Review of Fire Tests on Seats for Passenger Coaches and the Materials Used in Them

by Dieter Hohenwarter

Fire 2025, 8(1), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8010032 - 17 Jan 2025

Viewed by 978

Abstract

This study shows how the fire regulations for railway seats used in international traffic have changed over the last 30 years. In the past, a paper cushion was used as a flame source, and today, a 15 kW burner is used; consequently, the requirements have increased. In the paper cushion test, a foam with a density of between 60 and 95 kg/m³, a flame-retardant fleece, and a cover fabric was usually sufficient in terms of fire safety. Today, a high-quality flame-retardant foam is necessary to meet the requirements for flaming with the 15 kW burner. Two comparable seat structures show very different heat release and smoke formation in the paper cushion test due to different foam additives. If high-quality flame-retardant foams with a cover fabric are used for the 15 kW flame treatment, the results of the two test institutes show good agreement. If the seats that meet the requirements of the paper cushion test are flamed using the 15 kW treatment, they can catch fire and thus exhibit very different heat release rates, as the CERTIFER interlaboratory test with 12 participating test institutes shows. The heat release of old and new leather was examined, and it was found that the flame retardant applied to the leather surface appeared to have aged over the years and that the flame retardant was therefore no longer effective. The heat release of flame-retardant foams with a cover fabric was measured using irradiation with a cone calorimeter and flame treatment. Very different curves were observed, which means that it is not possible to draw simple conclusions about the heat release during flame treatment from the cone measurement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Prevention and Flame Retardant Materials)

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15 pages, 8003 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Ignition Phenomenon and Mechanism of Welding Spatters Under Different Current Intensities

by Feiyue Wang, Litian Wan, Jing Luo and Yanmin Tong

Fire 2024, 7(12), 441; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7120441 - 28 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 904

Abstract

The ignition of combustible materials by electric welding spatters represents a significant cause of fires in welding operations, and the current intensity is a sensitive factor that affects the ignition capacity of welding spatters. In this work, the influence of different current intensities on the physical properties and ignition capacity of welding spatters on common combustible materials was investigated, and the ignition mechanism of electric welding spatter was also explained by means of the hot-spot theory. The results indicated that the splash range, the total generated quantity, the maximum diameter, and the temperature of electric welding spatters increased with the enhancement in current intensity. Furthermore, a higher current intensity was associated with a greater likelihood of producing irregular spatter particles. The probability of ignition of electrode welding spatters was found to be sensitive to their physical properties, exhibiting a non-linear increase with increasing current intensity. At a current intensity of 360 A, a surge in both the physical properties and ignition capacity of the spatters was observed, which is attributed to the coupling of a reduction in the critical hot-spot radius and an unstable pulsation in the arc. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Prevention and Flame Retardant Materials)

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14 pages, 3659 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Circular Economy Perspective: Recycling Wastes through the CO₂ Capture Process in Gypsum Products. Fire Resistance, Mechanical Properties, and Life Cycle Analysis

by Jaime D. Ruiz-Martinez, Virginia Moreno, Judith González-Arias, Begoña Peceño Capilla, Francisco M. Baena-Moreno and Carlos Leiva

Fire 2024, 7(10), 365; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7100365 - 11 Oct 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1575

Abstract

In recent years, the implementation of CO₂ capture systems has increased. To reduce the costs and the footprint of the processes, different industrial wastes are successfully proposed for CO₂ capture, such as gypsum from desulfurization units. This gypsum undergoes an aqueous carbonation process for CO₂ capture, producing an added-value solid material that can be valorized. In this work, panels have been manufactured with a replacement of (5 and 20%) commercial gypsum and all the compositions kept the water/solid ratio constant (0.45). The density, surface hardness, resistance to compression, bending, and fire resistance of 2 cm thick panels have been determined. The addition of the waste after the CO₂ capture diminishes the density and mechanical strength. However, it fulfills the requirements of the different European regulations and diminishes 56% of the thermal conductivity when 20%wt of waste is used. Although the CO₂ waste is decomposed endothermically at 650 °C, the fire resistance decreases by 18% when 20%wt. is added, which allows us to establish that these wastes can be used in fire-resistant panels. An environmental life cycle assessment was conducted by analyzing a recycling case in Spain. The results indicate that the material with CO₂ capture waste offers no environmental advantage over gypsum unless the production plant is located within 200 km of the waste source, with transportation being the key factor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Prevention and Flame Retardant Materials)

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15 pages, 6558 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fire Endurance of Spherical Concrete Domes Exposed to Standard Fire

by Abdelraouf T. Kassem, Ayman M. El Ansary and Maged A. Youssef

Fire 2024, 7(6), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7060208 - 19 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1613

Abstract

Fire is considered a common hazard for civil structures. Public and administrative buildings are commonly designed by considering the standard fire rating and, in many cases, contain large compartments with central domes, in which fire growth can be significant. Moreover, tanks and underground fortified structures may be constructed as domes to support the heavy soil above. This paper numerically addressed such a case. First, an axisymmetric finite element model was developed and validated to predict the dome’s transient, thermal, structural, and thermal-structural behavior. Next, the model was used to conduct a parametric study to investigate the effects of the dome ring reinforcement, thickness, stiffness, central angle, base restraints, load type (external pressure or gravitational), and load ratio on the fire endurance of the dome. Design recommendations to increase the fire endurance of concrete domes were formulated based on the parametric study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Prevention and Flame Retardant Materials)

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16 pages, 7125 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Properties and Reaction-to-Fire Performance of Binderless Particleboards Made from Canary Island Palm Trunks

by Berta Elena Ferrandez-Garcia, Teresa Garcia-Ortuño, Manuel Ferrandez-Villena and Maria Teresa Ferrandez-Garcia

Fire 2024, 7(6), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7060193 - 8 Jun 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1614

Abstract

Repurposing agricultural and forestry by-products not only is beneficial for the environment but also follows the principles of the circular economy. In southeastern Spain, the Canary Island palm tree (Phoenix canariensis W.) is widely used in urban landscapes. Plantations affected by the red weevil, a pest, generate an abundance of plant waste that must be crushed and transferred to authorized landfills. The aim of this study was to manufacture boards using particles from trunks of the Canary Island palm tree without adding any binders in order to obtain an ecological and fire-resistant product. In order to manufacture the boards, three particle sizes (<0.25, 0.25–1, and 1–2 mm), a temperature of 110 °C, a pressure of 2.6 MPa, and a pressing time of 7 min were used. The boards were pressed in a hot plate press for 7 min up to four times (7 min, 7 + 7 min, 7 + 7 + 7 min, and 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 min). The resulting boards showed good thermal performance, and the board´s reaction-to-fire performance was classified as Bd0 (an Fs value of 70.3 mm). This study also showed that boards with a particle size smaller than 0.25 mm that underwent four pressing cycles of 7 min each in the press can be categorized as grade P2 according to the European Standards (MOR of 20 N/mm², MOE of 2589.8 N/mm², and IB of 0.74 N/mm²). Therefore, these manufactured particleboards could be used as a flame-retardant material for the interior enclosures of buildings (vertical and horizontal) without the need for coatings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Prevention and Flame Retardant Materials)

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11 pages, 5702 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Study of the Suppression Behavior and Fire-Extinguishing Mechanism of Compressed-Gas Aqueous Film-Forming Foam in Diesel Pool Fires

by Long Yan, Ning Wang, Jingjing Guan, Zheng Wei, Qiaowei Xiao and Zhisheng Xu

Fire 2023, 6(7), 269; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6070269 - 6 Jul 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3441

Abstract

A compressed-gas fire extinguishing experiment was carried out to analyze the impact of gas-liquid flow ratio, liquid flow rate and driving pressure on the fire suppression efficiency of aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) in a diesel pool fire, and a possible fire-extinguishing mechanism was proposed. A fire suppression test showed that AFFF at a gas-liquid flow ratio of 16 between the range of 5 to 24 had the fastest fire-extinguishing temperature drop rate (16.67 °C/s), the shortest fire-extinguishing time, of 42 s, and the lowest foam solution consumption of 230 g, exhibiting the best fire suppression performance. Meanwhile, the fire suppression efficiency of AFFF improved with the augmentation of either liquid flow rate or system driving pressure. Based on fluid mechanics and combustion science, a foam fire-extinguishing mechanism was proposed to explain the influence of system parameters such as gas-liquid ratio, liquid flow rate and driving pressure on key combustion parameters such as temperature drop rate, evaporation rate and combustion rate, which can better illustrate the change in fire extinguishing performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Prevention and Flame Retardant Materials)

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14 pages, 3560 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Silica Fume Enhances the Mechanical Strength of Alkali-Activated Slag/Fly Ash Pastes Subjected to Elevated Temperatures

by Weidong Dai and Yachao Wang

Fire 2023, 6(7), 252; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6070252 - 27 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1949

Abstract

The fireproof design of geopolymers through adjusting multi-component metallurgical solid wastes has attracted increasing attention, due to their potential low carbon emission, cost effectiveness, and role in environmental conservation. Herein, the effects of silica fume (SF) on the microstructure and mechanical properties of alkali-activated slag/FA (fly ash) pastes subjected to elevated temperatures (150, 500, 850, and 1200 °C) are investigated to clarify whether or not SF has a positive role in the mechanical strength of the slag/FA (slag/FA = 30:70, wt.%) geopolymer during building fires. The results show that the replacement of FA with 10 wt.% SF (silica fume) promotes the increasing pore volume with a diameter of 0.2~3 μm, leading to an increase in the compressive or flexural strength below 850 °C, “right shifts” of the endothermic peak, and uniform and compact fracture surfaces. Meanwhile, gehlenite and labradorite are generated after exposure above 850 °C. The bloating effect of the SF-containing sample occurs at 1200 °C, leading to a greater deformation due to the further restructuring of the amorphous geopolymer chain N–A–S–H or N–(Ca)–A–S–H composed of [SiO₄]⁴⁻ and [AlO₄]⁵⁻. This paper explores an effective approach to improving geopolymers’ fireproof performance by adjusting the formulation of solid waste. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Prevention and Flame Retardant Materials)

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Review

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35 pages, 6792 KiB

Open AccessReview

Polyurethane Materials for Fire Retardancy: Synthesis, Structure, Properties, and Applications

by Jiemin Zhang, Guan Heng Yeoh and Imrana I. Kabir

Fire 2025, 8(2), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8020064 - 5 Feb 2025

Viewed by 1300

Abstract

As the demand for high-performance polymers broadens, polyurethane (PU) polymers with various chemical modifications have attracted attention. This review explores the chemical structure and functional variations of PUs. PUs are used in a variety of fields, ranging from aerospace engineering to daily necessities, and show remarkable safety adaptability through designable synthesis processes. This study is divided into four main parts: (1) synthesis and structure, covering the synthesis of PU base and modification of additive compounds; (2) performance, studying physical properties and thermal degradation processes; (3) application, evaluating the commercial potential of PU polymers; and (4) flame retardancy, analyzing five established flame-retardant mechanisms. The last part discusses how PUs can meet sustainable development goals by replacing petroleum-based materials with green materials. By emphasizing non-petroleum resources and novel, sustainable modification strategies, this review conducts guidance for the safe and environmentally friendly application of PUs in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Prevention and Flame Retardant Materials)

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