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The Internet of Things—Current Trends, Applications, and Future Challenges (2nd...
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The Internet of Things—Current Trends, Applications, and Future Challenges (2nd Edition)

A special issue of Computers (ISSN 2073-431X). This special issue belongs to the section "Internet of Things (IoT) and Industrial IoT".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2025) | Viewed by 17834

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Sergio Correia

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Center of Technology and Systems (UNINOVA-CTS) and Associated Lab of Intelligent Systems (LASI), 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
2. VALORIZA-Research Centre for Endogenous Resource Valorization, Instituto Politécnico de Portalegre, Portalegre, Portugal
3. Cognitive and People-Centric Computing Laboratories (COPELABS), Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias, Lisbon, Portugal
Interests: embedded artificial intelligence, soft computing, embedded systems, and computer architecture
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. João Pedro Matos-Carvalho

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Center of Technology and Systems (UNINOVA-CTS) and Associated Lab of Intelligent Systems (LASI), 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
2. Cognitive and People-Centric Computing Laboratories (COPELABS), Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias, Lisbon, Portugal
Interests: computer vision, artificial intelligence, image processing, aerial robotics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm has changed traditional living into a high-tech lifestyle. Pervasive environments that interconnect many heterogeneous physical objects (or things) to enhance the efficiency of everyday tasks are becoming common in an increasing number of fields of application. However, many open challenges and obstacles still need to be addressed to achieve the full potential of the IoT. These challenges and combined issues must be considered from various aspects of the IoT, such as applications, challenges, enabling technologies, or social and environmental impacts.

This Special Issue aims to bring together researchers and professionals to discuss a collection of ideas on the advancements in technology, application areas, or social and environmental impacts that the IoT currently faces and to state possible future challenges and directions of research.

Dr. Sergio Correia
Dr. João Pedro Pedro Matos-Carvalho
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Computers is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • internet of things (IoT)
  • artificial intelligence and machine learning
  • blockchain
  • privacy and security
  • industry 4.0
  • cloud computing
  • big data
  • embedded computing
  • sensor networks
  • distributed computing
  • green computing and energy efficiency
  • internet of Wearable Things
  • healthcare
  • testbed and experimental results for the IoT
  • smart sensors
  • drones and UAVs
  • 5G and beyond-5G networks
  • software-defined wireless access networks
  • pervasive computing
  • social and environmental impacts

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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21 pages, 28815 KB  
Article
Towards a Framework for Covert Communications for Mitigating Traffic Detection Attacks
by Abdallah Farraj
Computers 2025, 14(12), 533; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers14120533 - 4 Dec 2025
Viewed by 278
Abstract
This article addresses a critical security challenge in Internet of Things (IoT) systems, which are vulnerable to traffic detection attacks due to their reliance on shared wireless communication channels. We propose a novel cooperative covert transmission strategy to enhance the security of IoT [...] Read more.
This article addresses a critical security challenge in Internet of Things (IoT) systems, which are vulnerable to traffic detection attacks due to their reliance on shared wireless communication channels. We propose a novel cooperative covert transmission strategy to enhance the security of IoT communications against these attacks through the implementation of physical-layer security mechanisms. Inspired by zero-forcing precoding techniques, the proposed approach enables cooperation between different IoT devices in the system to increase the likelihood of adversaries making incorrect conclusions about the communication activity of the targeted IoT device. The proposed covert communication strategy complements traditional security measures, provides a scalable solution, and is suitable for resource-constrained IoT environments. The numerical results in this article demonstrate significant improvements in protecting communications against traffic detection attacks, which contributes to the overall security and privacy of IoT systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Internet of Things—Current Trends, Applications, and Future Challenges (2nd Edition))
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20 pages, 753 KB  
Article
Advanced System for Remote Updates on ESP32-Based Devices Using Over-the-Air Update Technology
by Lukas Formanek, Michal Kubascik, Ondrej Karpis and Peter Kolok
Computers 2025, 14(12), 531; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers14120531 - 4 Dec 2025
Viewed by 996
Abstract
Over-the-air (OTA) firmware updating has become a fundamental requirement in modern Internet of Things (IoT) deployments, where thousands of heterogeneous embedded devices operate in remote and distributed environments. Manual firmware maintenance in such systems is impractical, costly, and prone to security risks, making [...] Read more.
Over-the-air (OTA) firmware updating has become a fundamental requirement in modern Internet of Things (IoT) deployments, where thousands of heterogeneous embedded devices operate in remote and distributed environments. Manual firmware maintenance in such systems is impractical, costly, and prone to security risks, making automated update mechanisms essential for long-term reliability and lifecycle management. This paper presents a unified OTA update architecture for ESP32-based IoT devices that integrates centralized version control and multi-protocol communication support (Wi-Fi, BLE, Zigbee, LoRa, and GSM), enabling consistent firmware distribution across heterogeneous networks. The system incorporates version-compatibility checks, rollback capability, and a server-driven release routing mechanism for development and production branches. An analytical model of timing, reliability, and energy consumption is provided, and experimental validation on a fleet of ESP32 devices demonstrates reduced update latency compared to native vendor OTA solutions, together with reliable operation under simultaneous device loads. Overall, the proposed solution provides a scalable and resilient foundation for secure OTA lifecycle management in smart-industry, remote sensing, and autonomous infrastructure applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Internet of Things—Current Trends, Applications, and Future Challenges (2nd Edition))
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16 pages, 417 KB  
Article
Empowering the Operator: Fault Diagnosis and Identification in an Industrial Environment Through a User-Friendly IoT Architecture
by Annalisa Bertoli and Cesare Fantuzzi
Computers 2025, 14(9), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers14090349 - 26 Aug 2025
Viewed by 942
Abstract
In recent years, the increasing complexity of production systems driven by technological development has created new opportunities in the industrial world but has also brought challenges in the practical use of these systems by operators. One of the biggest changes is data existence [...] Read more.
In recent years, the increasing complexity of production systems driven by technological development has created new opportunities in the industrial world but has also brought challenges in the practical use of these systems by operators. One of the biggest changes is data existence and its accessibility. This work proposes an IoT architecture specifically designed for real-world industrial environments. The goal is to present a system that can be effectively implemented to monitor operations and production processes in real time. This solution improves fault detection and identification, giving the operators the critical information needed to make informed decisions. The IoT architecture is implemented in two different industrial applications, demonstrating the flexibility of the architecture across various industrial contexts. It highlights how the system is monitored to reduce downtime when a fault occurs, making clear the loss in performance and the fault that causes this loss. Additionally, this approach supports human operators in a deeper understanding of their working environment, enabling them to make decisions based on real-time data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Internet of Things—Current Trends, Applications, and Future Challenges (2nd Edition))
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23 pages, 11427 KB  
Article
Kalman Filter-Enhanced Data Aggregation in LoRaWAN-Based IoT Framework for Aquaculture Monitoring in Sargassum sp. Cultivation
by Misbahuddin Misbahuddin, Nunik Cokrowati, Muhamad Syamsu Iqbal, Obie Farobie, Apip Amrullah and Lusi Ernawati
Computers 2025, 14(4), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers14040151 - 18 Apr 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1830
Abstract
This study presents a LoRaWAN-based IoT framework for robust data aggregation in Sargassum sp. cultivation, integrating multi-sensor monitoring and Kalman filter-based data enhancement. The system employs water quality sensors—including temperature, salinity, light intensity, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solids, and pH—deployed in 6 out [...] Read more.
This study presents a LoRaWAN-based IoT framework for robust data aggregation in Sargassum sp. cultivation, integrating multi-sensor monitoring and Kalman filter-based data enhancement. The system employs water quality sensors—including temperature, salinity, light intensity, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solids, and pH—deployed in 6 out of 14 cultivation containers. Sensor data are transmitted via LoRaWAN to The Things Network (TTN) and processed through an MQTT-based pipeline in Node-RED before visualization in ThingSpeak. The Kalman filter is applied to improve data accuracy and detect faulty sensor readings, ensuring reliable aggregation of environmental parameters. Experimental results demonstrate that this approach effectively maintains optimal cultivation conditions, reducing ecological risks such as eutrophication and improving Sargassum sp. growth monitoring. Findings indicate that balanced light intensity plays a crucial role in photosynthesis, with optimally exposed containers exhibiting the highest survival rates and biomass. However, nutrient supplementation showed limited impact due to uneven distribution, highlighting the need for improved delivery systems. By combining real-time monitoring with advanced data processing, this framework enhances decision-making in sustainable aquaculture, demonstrating the potential of LoRaWAN and Kalman filter-based methodologies for environmental monitoring and resource management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Internet of Things—Current Trends, Applications, and Future Challenges (2nd Edition))
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30 pages, 3310 KB  
Article
Enhancing Scalability and Network Efficiency in IOTA Tangle Networks: A POMDP-Based Tip Selection Algorithm
by Mays Alshaikhli, Somaya Al-Maadeed and Moutaz Saleh
Computers 2025, 14(4), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers14040117 - 24 Mar 2025
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2243
Abstract
The fairness problem in the IOTA (Internet of Things Application) Tangle network has significant implications for transaction efficiency, scalability, and security, particularly concerning orphan transactions and lazy tips. Traditional tip selection algorithms (TSAs) struggle to ensure fair tip selection, leading to inefficient transaction [...] Read more.
The fairness problem in the IOTA (Internet of Things Application) Tangle network has significant implications for transaction efficiency, scalability, and security, particularly concerning orphan transactions and lazy tips. Traditional tip selection algorithms (TSAs) struggle to ensure fair tip selection, leading to inefficient transaction confirmations and network congestion. This research proposes a novel partially observable Markov decision process (POMDP)-based TSA, which dynamically prioritizes tips with lower confirmation likelihood, reducing orphan transactions and enhancing network throughput. By leveraging probabilistic decision making and the Monte Carlo tree search, the proposed TSA efficiently selects tips based on long-term impact rather than immediate transaction weight. The algorithm is rigorously evaluated against seven existing TSAs, including Random Walk, Unweighted TSA, Weighted TSA, Hybrid TSA-1, Hybrid TSA-2, E-IOTA, and G-IOTA, under various network conditions. The experimental results demonstrate that the POMDP-based TSA achieves a confirmation rate of 89–94%, reduces the orphan tip rate to 1–5%, and completely eliminates lazy tips (0%). Additionally, the proposed method ensures stable scalability and high security resilience, making it a robust and efficient solution for decentralized ledger networks. These findings highlight the potential of reinforcement learning-driven TSAs to enhance fairness, efficiency, and robustness in DAG-based blockchain systems. This work paves the way for future research into adaptive and scalable consensus mechanisms for the IOTA Tangle. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Internet of Things—Current Trends, Applications, and Future Challenges (2nd Edition))
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Review

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54 pages, 6926 KB  
Review
A Comprehensive Review of Sensor Technologies in IoT: Technical Aspects, Challenges, and Future Directions
by Sadiq H. Abdulhussain, Basheera M. Mahmmod, Almuntadher Alwhelat, Dina Shehada, Zainab I. Shihab, Hala J. Mohammed, Tuqa H. Abdulameer, Muntadher Alsabah, Maryam H. Fadel, Susan K. Ali, Ghadeer H. Abbood, Zianab A. Asker and Abir Hussain
Computers 2025, 14(8), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers14080342 - 21 Aug 2025
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 10771
Abstract
The rapid advancements in wireless technology and digital electronics have led to the widespread adoption of compact, intelligent devices in various aspects of daily life. These advanced systems possess the capability to sense environmental changes, process data, and communicate seamlessly within interconnected networks. [...] Read more.
The rapid advancements in wireless technology and digital electronics have led to the widespread adoption of compact, intelligent devices in various aspects of daily life. These advanced systems possess the capability to sense environmental changes, process data, and communicate seamlessly within interconnected networks. Typically, such devices integrate low-power radio transmitters and multiple smart sensors, hence enabling efficient functionality across wide ranges of applications. Alongside these technological developments, the concept of the IoT has emerged as a transformative paradigm, facilitating the interconnection of uniquely identifiable devices through internet-based networks. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive exploration of sensor technologies, detailing their integral role within IoT frameworks and examining their impact on optimizing efficiency and service delivery in modern wireless communications systems. Also, it presents a thorough review of sensor technologies, current research trends, and the associated challenges in this evolving field, providing a detailed explanation of recent advancements and IoT-integrated sensor systems, with a particular emphasis on the fundamental architecture of sensors and their pivotal role in modern technological applications. It explores the core benefits of sensor technologies and delivers an in-depth classification of their fundamental types. Beyond reviewing existing developments, this study identifies key open research challenges and outlines prospective directions for future exploration, offering valuable insights for both academic researchers and industry professionals. Ultimately, this paper serves as an essential reference for understanding sensor technologies and their potential contributions to IoT-driven solutions. This study offers meaningful contributions to academic and industrial sectors, facilitating advancements in sensor innovation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Internet of Things—Current Trends, Applications, and Future Challenges (2nd Edition))
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