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Antibiotics
Special Issues
Environmental Fate of Antibiotics: Monitoring, Toxicity, Resistance, and Removal Methods
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Environmental Fate of Antibiotics: Monitoring, Toxicity, Resistance, and Removal Methods

A special issue of Antibiotics (ISSN 2079-6382).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 May 2026 | Viewed by 15946

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Takashi Azuma

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Pharmacy, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, 4-20-1 Nasahara, Takatsuki 569-1094, Osaka, Japan
Interests: antibiotics; occurrence; wastewater; river; aquatic environment; ecotoxicity; antimicrobial-resistance (AMR); advanced water treatment; environmental risk assessment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In recent years, research has been conducted on a global scale to assess the health and environmental risks associated with antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and to develop countermeasures. The spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria on a global scale is causing growing concern about the future of antibiotics use and other measures to control infectious diseases, and the WHO considers the problem of antibiotic-resistant bacteria to be an important issue that requires immediate action and effective measures. In addition to the clinical situation, community-acquired infections caused by healthy carriers and outbreaks of antibiotic-resistant bacteria originating from livestock and fisheries are also becoming concerns, and a comprehensive understanding of trends and countermeasures based on a One Health approach is essential.

Antibiotics are considered to play an important role in assessing and addressing AMR problems in the environment. Therefore, elucidating the actual status of antibiotics in the environment, assessing environmental risks, and taking effective measures to reduce or eliminate risks have the potential to provide useful knowledge for finding a point of coexistence between modern, affluent life and sustainable human prosperity.

This Special Issue focuses on monitoring surveys, which are essential for clarifying the actual status of antibiotics in the environment; research and development of rapid, high-throughput analytical methods that allow the analysis of multiple samples at multiple sites; and risk assessment of toxic effects on ecosystems and humans caused by antibiotics and potential promotion of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, as well as removal methods that may be effective in reducing or mitigating these environmental risks. This Special Issue also solicits Review Articles that summarize past research and provide suggestions for future One Health approaches to combating AMR.

Dr. Takashi Azuma
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Antibiotics is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2900 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • antimicrobials
  • high-throughput analysis
  • wastewater treatment plant (WWTP)
  • hospital wastewater
  • livestock environment
  • water purification plant (WTP)
  • aquatic environment
  • environmental health risk assessment
  • antimicrobial resistance (AMR)
  • advanced water treatment

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

15 pages, 748 KB  
Article
City or Suburb, Resistance Flows: Wastewater-Borne ESKAPE and AMR Genes in Malaysian Hospitals
by Sophia Karen Bakon, Nur Fatihah Sholehah Zakaria, Mohd Azerulazree Jamilan, Hazimah Hashim and Zuraifah Asrah Mohamad
Antibiotics 2025, 14(11), 1058; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14111058 - 23 Oct 2025
Viewed by 594
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Hospital wastewater has become a major hotspot for the spread of antimicrobial resistance and the accumulation of antibiotic-resistant genes. We focused on ESKAPE pathogens isolated from hospital wastewater and their antibiotic profiles, which are known to cause nosocomial infections in hospitals. Screening [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Hospital wastewater has become a major hotspot for the spread of antimicrobial resistance and the accumulation of antibiotic-resistant genes. We focused on ESKAPE pathogens isolated from hospital wastewater and their antibiotic profiles, which are known to cause nosocomial infections in hospitals. Screening for antibiotic resistant genes in isolates and quantifying antibiotic residues in hospital wastewaters, which may reflect the amount of usage of antibiotics in Klang Valley city hospitals in Malaysia. Methods: Hospital wastewater treatment plants from Klang Valley city were selected based on the study criteria. ESKAPE pathogens were isolated and identified using 16S rRNA PCR, and antibiotic sensitivity testing was performed. Antibiotic resistant gene screenings were performed using quantitative PCR, and quantification of antibiotic residues in the effluent samples was performed using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Results: Klebsiella pneumoniae with Multiple Antibiotics Resistance Index (MARi) ranging from low (0.29) to very high resistance (0.71) dominantly isolated among ESKAPE pathogens followed by Enterococcus faecium ranging from low (0.29) to critical resistance (1.0) from hospital wastewater in Klang Valley city. The ermB gene was the predominant antibiotic resistance gene identified in Klang Valley city hospitals and suburban hospitals, representing 45.5% of isolated E. faecium from suburban hospitals and 69% from city hospitals. Although the detection of antibiotic residues was minimal, vancomycin and ciprofloxacin were detected from the wastewater. Conclusions: These findings call for improved wastewater management and antibiotic stewardship to mitigate the spread of resistant pathogens from healthcare facilities into the environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Fate of Antibiotics: Monitoring, Toxicity, Resistance, and Removal Methods)
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13 pages, 1385 KB  
Article
Emergence of Carbapenem-Resistant blaPOM-1 Harboring Pseudomonas otitidis Isolated from River Water in Ghana
by Frederick Ofosu Appiah, Samiratu Mahazu, Isaac Prah, Taira Kawamura, Yusuke Ota, Yohei Nishikawa, Mitsunori Yoshida, Masato Suzuki, Yoshihiko Hoshino, Toshihiko Suzuki, Tomoko Ishino, Anthony Ablordey and Ryoichi Saito
Antibiotics 2025, 14(1), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14010050 - 8 Jan 2025
Viewed by 4818
Abstract
Introduction: Pseudomonas otitidis, known for carrying the blaPOM-1 gene and linked to various diseases, is widely distributed. However, its prevalence in Ghana is unknown, mainly due to misidentification or inadequate research. In this study, for the first time, we characterized [...] Read more.
Introduction: Pseudomonas otitidis, known for carrying the blaPOM-1 gene and linked to various diseases, is widely distributed. However, its prevalence in Ghana is unknown, mainly due to misidentification or inadequate research. In this study, for the first time, we characterized P. otitidis from Densu river water in Ghana. Methods: The antimicrobial susceptibility and whole genome characteristics of two strains (Tg_9B and BC12) were determined. The resistance and virulence features were determined using ResFinder and the VFDB database, respectively. Maximum-likelihood phylogeny was conducted based on amino acid sequences of blaPOM-1 and P. otitidis core genomes. Results: The strains carried blaPOM-1 on the chromosome, with only Tg_9B showing intermediate resistance to meropenem. Tg_9B had a unique genetic make-up downstream of blaPOM-1, compared with BC12 and other reference strains. Both strains harbored virulence factors able to induce pathogenicity through immune evasion. The efflux pump genes (adeF, rsmA, and qacG) were present in the genomes of all the strains used in this study. The amino acid sequences of POM-1 in the strains shared a sequence homology with seven other sequences from different countries. Conclusions: This study highlights the emergence of blaPOM-1 harboring P. otitidis in Ghana and affirms the conservation of blaPOM-1 and adeF, rsmA, and qacG in the species. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Fate of Antibiotics: Monitoring, Toxicity, Resistance, and Removal Methods)
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16 pages, 2196 KB  
Article
Metatranscriptomic Analysis Reveals Actively Expressed Antimicrobial-Resistant Genes and Their Hosts in Hospital Wastewater
by Yusuke Ota, Fei Chen, Isaac Prah, Samiratu Mahazu, Kimiyo Watanabe, Teruaki Kinoshita, Yoshiaki Gu, Yoko Nukui and Ryoichi Saito
Antibiotics 2024, 13(12), 1122; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13121122 - 23 Nov 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2421
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance is a major global concern and economic threat, necessitating a reliable monitoring approach to understand its frequency and spread via the environment. Hospital wastewater serves as a critical reservoir for antimicrobial-resistant organisms; however, its role in resistance gene distribution and dissemination [...] Read more.
Antimicrobial resistance is a major global concern and economic threat, necessitating a reliable monitoring approach to understand its frequency and spread via the environment. Hospital wastewater serves as a critical reservoir for antimicrobial-resistant organisms; however, its role in resistance gene distribution and dissemination remains poorly understood. This study integrates metagenomic and metatranscriptomic analyses, elucidating the dynamics of antimicrobial resistance in hospital wastewater. Integrated metagenomic and metatranscriptomic sequencing were used to identify actively expressed antimicrobial-resistant genes and antimicrobial-resistant bacteria, offering comprehensive insights into antimicrobial resistance dynamics in hospital wastewater. Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry analysis revealed the presence of ampicillin, sulbactam, levofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, and trimethoprim in the sample, which could apply selective pressure on antimicrobial resistance gene expression. While multidrug resistance genes were the most prevalent sequences in both metagenome-assembled genomes and plasmids, plasmid-derived sequences showed a high mRNA/DNA ratio, emphasizing the presence of functionally expressed antimicrobial resistance genes on plasmids rather than on chromosomes. The metagenomic and metatranscriptomic analyses revealed Serratia nevei MAG14 with high mRNA levels of antimicrobial resistance genes; moreover, multidrug-resistant Serratia sp., genetically related to MAG14, was isolated from the wastewater, supporting the phenotypic characterization of crucial antimicrobial-resistant bacteria and validating the genome analysis results. The findings underscore key genes and bacteria as targets for antimicrobial resistance surveillance in hospital wastewater to protect public and environmental health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Fate of Antibiotics: Monitoring, Toxicity, Resistance, and Removal Methods)
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12 pages, 1767 KB  
Article
Fungal Bioremediation of the β-Lactam Antibiotic Ampicillin under Laccase-Induced Conditions
by Bouthaina Ghariani, Abdulrahman H. Alessa, Imen Ben Atitallah, Ibtihel Louati, Ahmad A. Alsaigh, Tahar Mechichi and Héla Zouari-Mechichi
Antibiotics 2024, 13(5), 407; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13050407 - 29 Apr 2024
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3021
Abstract
Due to widespread overuse, pharmaceutical compounds, such as antibiotics, are becoming increasingly prevalent in greater concentrations in aquatic ecosystems. In this study, we investigated the capacity of the white-rot fungus, Coriolopsis gallica (a high-laccase-producing fungus), to biodegrade ampicillin under different cultivation conditions. The [...] Read more.
Due to widespread overuse, pharmaceutical compounds, such as antibiotics, are becoming increasingly prevalent in greater concentrations in aquatic ecosystems. In this study, we investigated the capacity of the white-rot fungus, Coriolopsis gallica (a high-laccase-producing fungus), to biodegrade ampicillin under different cultivation conditions. The biodegradation of the antibiotic was confirmed using high-performance liquid chromatography, and its antibacterial activity was evaluated using the bacterial growth inhibition agar well diffusion method, with Escherichia coli as an ampicillin-sensitive test strain. C. gallica successfully eliminated ampicillin (50 mg L−1) after 6 days of incubation in a liquid medium. The best results were achieved with a 9-day-old fungal culture, which treated a high concentration (500 mg L−1) of ampicillin within 3 days. This higher antibiotic removal rate was concomitant with the maximum laccase production in the culture supernatant. Meanwhile, four consecutive doses of 500 mg L−1 of ampicillin were removed by the same fungal culture within 24 days. After that, the fungus failed to remove the antibiotic. The measurement of the ligninolytic enzyme activity showed that C. gallica laccase might participate in the bioremediation of ampicillin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Fate of Antibiotics: Monitoring, Toxicity, Resistance, and Removal Methods)
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18 pages, 6013 KB  
Article
Development of a High-Throughput Analytical Method for Antimicrobials in Wastewater Using an Automated Pipetting and Solid-Phase Extraction System
by Takashi Azuma, Nobuaki Matsunaga, Norio Ohmagari and Makoto Kuroda
Antibiotics 2024, 13(4), 335; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13040335 - 5 Apr 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3281
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged and spread globally. Recent studies have also reported the presence of antimicrobials in a wide variety of aquatic environments. Conducting a nationwide monitoring survey of AMR in the environment to elucidate its status and to assess its impact [...] Read more.
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged and spread globally. Recent studies have also reported the presence of antimicrobials in a wide variety of aquatic environments. Conducting a nationwide monitoring survey of AMR in the environment to elucidate its status and to assess its impact on ecosystems and human health is of social importance. In this study, we developed a novel high-throughput analysis (HTA) system based on a 96-well plate solid-phase extraction (SPE), using automated pipetting and an SPE pre-treatment system. The effectiveness of the system as an HTA for antimicrobials in environmental water was verified by comparing it with a conventional manual analytical system in a domestic hospital over a period of two years and four months. The results of the manual analysis and HTA using a combination of automated pipetting and SPE systems were generally consistent, and no statistically significant difference was observed (p > 0.05) between the two systems. The agreement ratios between the measured concentrations based on the conventional and HTA methods were positively correlated with a correlation coefficient of r = 0.99. These results indicate that HTA, which combines automated pipetting and an SPE pre-treatment system for rapid, high-volume analysis, can be used as an effective approach for understanding the environmental contamination of antimicrobials at multiple sites. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report to present the accuracy and agreement between concentrations based on a manual analysis and those measured using HTA in hospital wastewater. These findings contribute to a comprehensive understanding of antimicrobials in aquatic environments and assess the ecological and human health risks associated with antimicrobials and antimicrobial-resistant bacteria to maintain the safety of aquatic environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Fate of Antibiotics: Monitoring, Toxicity, Resistance, and Removal Methods)
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Review

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22 pages, 1012 KB  
Review
From Tears to Toxins: Mapping Antibiotic Passage Through the Eye–Liver Axis
by Ivan Šoša
Antibiotics 2025, 14(11), 1069; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14111069 - 24 Oct 2025
Viewed by 559
Abstract
Traditionally used to combat infections, systemic effects of antibiotics are increasingly recognized in the context of absorption through unconventional routes. One such as the ocular surface. This review tackles the bidirectional liver–eye axis, highlighting how trace antibiotic residues from environmental and therapeutic sources [...] Read more.
Traditionally used to combat infections, systemic effects of antibiotics are increasingly recognized in the context of absorption through unconventional routes. One such as the ocular surface. This review tackles the bidirectional liver–eye axis, highlighting how trace antibiotic residues from environmental and therapeutic sources affect the tear film, disturb ocular microbiota, and impact liver metabolism. It engages in anatomical pathways, microbial regulation, pharmacokinetics, and systemic immune responses. Additionally, this review discusses forensic uses and new therapeutic strategies, stressing the importance of integrated environmental monitoring and precision medicine to tackle nonmedicinal antibiotic exposure. Due to the absence of results from a systematic literature review, a narrative literature review was undertaken instead. More than 100 studies discussing mechanistic, clinical, and experimental insights were reviewed, with 98 of those studies being documented as source literature. The findings demonstrate that antibiotics may penetrate and be absorbed through the ocular surface, cause modifications of the hepatic first-pass metabolism, and change the activity of cytochrome P450. Correlations were documented between the various liver function biomarkers and the ocular tear film, as well as the thickness of the retinal pigment epithelium. The dysbiosis of eye microbiota may be an indicator of systemic inflammation associated with immune dysregulation. Restoring microbial homeostasis and addressing systemic dysregulation are novel therapeutic approaches, including the use of probiotics, nanoparticle scavengers, and CRISPR. The eye is a sensory organ and a metabolically active organ. Systemically, the eye can affect the liver through the ocular surface and the antibiotics through the liver–eye axis. To protect the systemic health of the individual and the lensed metabolically active eye, the eye and liver must be viewed as a sentinel of systemic balance. Novel therapies will be necessary with the added need for environmental monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Fate of Antibiotics: Monitoring, Toxicity, Resistance, and Removal Methods)
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