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Lizard Evolutionary Ecology in Islands
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Lizard Evolutionary Ecology in Islands

A special issue of Animals (ISSN 2076-2615). This special issue belongs to the section "Herpetology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2023) | Viewed by 34357

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Efstratios D. Valakos

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Department of Biology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece
2. Museum of Zoology, Department of Biology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece
Interests: physiological and ecological adaptations of reptiles and land snail in Mediterranean-type ecosystems; study of life history traits; comparative biology; thermal biology; predation; antipredatory mechanisms; insularity; conservation of endemic species; phylogeny of reptiles; comparative morphometrics
Dr. Kostas Sagonas

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Zoology, School of Biology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
Interests: physiological and ecological adaptations of reptiles in Mediterranean type ecosystems; thermal biology; host-parasite interactions; prey-predator interactions; insularity; phenotypic plasticity; epigenetics; phylogeny and evolution of reptiles
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

It has been almost 50 years since the publication of the first edition of the now-classic book "Evolutionary Ecology" by Eric Pianka, which created the basis for how questions on animal ecology should be approached. In these fifty years, thousands of papers have been published, addressing questions on species biotic and abiotic interactions and the importance of phenotypic variation upon which natural selection can act. In all of this work, lizards, due to their biological and biogeographical properties, have been important model organisms to address many of these questions related to ecology, including topics such as population dynamics, urbanization, reproductive strategies, prey–predator and host–parasite interactions, thermoregulation, behavioral ecology and evolution, etc. On top of that, in all of these studies, insular populations provided many answers, but at the same time they posed new ones on how animals behave, function or adjust to the particular environment prevailing on the islands—"laboratories" of natural selection.

In this Special Issue, we aspire to present new trends and approaches to studying the continuous interactions between lizards that may serve as model organisms and key stone species on many environments and the special biotic and abiotic characteristics of islands. As pointed out by G. A. Bartholomew in 1958, each organism is inseparable from its environment and is essentially a complex system of interactions between a self-assembling physico-chemical system and its environment.

Prof. Dr. Efstratios D. Valakos
Dr. Kostas Sagonas
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • evolutionary ecology
  • lizards
  • islands
  • adaptation
  • parasitism
  • predation
  • thermal biology
  • plasticity
  • population dynamics

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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22 pages, 4951 KiB  
Article
Predation Risk, and Not Shelter or Food Availability, as the Main Determinant of Reproduction Investment in Island Lizards
by Johannes Foufopoulos, Yilun Zhao, Kinsey M. Brock, Panayiotis Pafilis and Efstratios D. Valakos
Animals 2023, 13(23), 3689; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13233689 - 28 Nov 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1723
Abstract
Reproductive investment, including the number of offspring produced, is one of the fundamental characteristics of a species. It is particularly important for island vertebrates, which face a disproportionate number of threats to their survival, because it predicts, among other things, a species’ resilience [...] Read more.
Reproductive investment, including the number of offspring produced, is one of the fundamental characteristics of a species. It is particularly important for island vertebrates, which face a disproportionate number of threats to their survival, because it predicts, among other things, a species’ resilience to environmental disruption. Taxa producing more offspring recover more quickly from environmental perturbations and survive environmental change better. However, ecologists do not understand which primary drivers shape a species’ reproductive investment well. Here, we compare the reproductive efforts of 14 island populations of the Aegean Wall Lizard (Podarcis erhardii), which lives across widely diverging environmental conditions. We test three hypotheses, namely that reproductive investment (measured as clutch size, clutch volume) is (1) positively associated with predation risk [‘Predation Risk Hypothesis’]; (2) positively associated with the presence of reliable vegetation cover that provides shelter [‘Gravid Female Protection Hypothesis’]; and (3) limited by (and hence positively correlated with) food availability [‘Food Limitation Hypothesis’]. Although field data are somewhat consistent with all three hypotheses, statistical analyses provide strong support for the Predation Risk Hypothesis. The results not only shed light on which fundamental forces shape reproductive investment in island vertebrates, but can also help shape conservation priorities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lizard Evolutionary Ecology in Islands)
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16 pages, 6436 KiB  
Article
Phylogenetic Analyses of Lizards from the Chilean Humboldt Archipelago Reveal a New Species for the Chañaral Island (Squamata: Liolaemidae)
by Ricardo Campos-Soto, Evelyn Rodríguez-Valenzuela, Yareta Bruna, Gabriel Díaz-Campusano, Franco Cianferoni, Dusan Boric-Bargetto and Fernando Torres-Pérez
Animals 2023, 13(22), 3576; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13223576 - 19 Nov 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4203
Abstract
The Humboldt Archipelago, situated on Chile’s north-central coast, is renowned for its exceptional biodiversity. However, lizards of the Liolaemus genus are a particularly understudied group in this archipelago. Liolaemus genus is divided into two clades: chiliensis and nigromaculatus. Within the nigromaculatus clade [...] Read more.
The Humboldt Archipelago, situated on Chile’s north-central coast, is renowned for its exceptional biodiversity. However, lizards of the Liolaemus genus are a particularly understudied group in this archipelago. Liolaemus genus is divided into two clades: chiliensis and nigromaculatus. Within the nigromaculatus clade the zapallarensis group is restricted to the semi-arid and arid coastal habitats of the Atacama Desert in north-central Chile. While it has been reported that lizards from the zapallarensis group inhabit various islands within the Humboldt Archipelago, there has been limited knowledge regarding their specific species identification. To identify the lizard species inhabiting these islands, we conducted phylogenetic analyses using a mitochondrial gene and examined morphological characteristics. Our findings reveal that lizards from the Damas, Choros, and Gaviota islands belong to Liolaemus silvai. In contrast, the lizards on Chañaral Island form a distinct and previously unrecognised group, clearly distinguishable from Liolaemus silvai. In conclusion, our study not only confirms the presence of L. silvai on the Damas, Choros, and Gaviota islands but also describes a new lizard species on Chañaral Island named Liolaemus carezzae sp. nov. These findings contribute valuable insights into the biodiversity of these islands and introduce a newly discovered endemic taxon to the region, enriching our understanding of Chile’s unique island ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lizard Evolutionary Ecology in Islands)
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11 pages, 521 KiB  
Article
Seasonal Variation in the Thermoregulation Pattern of an Insular Agamid Lizard
by Emmanouela Karameta, Ioanna Gavriilidi, Spyros Sfenthourakis and Panayiotis Pafilis
Animals 2023, 13(20), 3195; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13203195 - 13 Oct 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1717
Abstract
Ectotherms, including lizards, rely on behavioral thermoregulation to maintain their body temperature within an optimal range. The benign climate of islands is expected to favor the thermoregulation efficiency of reptiles throughout their activity period. In this study, we investigated the seasonal variation in [...] Read more.
Ectotherms, including lizards, rely on behavioral thermoregulation to maintain their body temperature within an optimal range. The benign climate of islands is expected to favor the thermoregulation efficiency of reptiles throughout their activity period. In this study, we investigated the seasonal variation in thermoregulation in an insular population of the roughtail rock agama (Laudakia stellio) on Naxos Island, Greece. We measured body, operative, and preferred temperatures across three seasons (spring, summer, and autumn), and we evaluated the effectiveness of thermoregulation, using the Hertz index (E). Our results revealed that the effectiveness of thermoregulation was significantly influenced by seasonality. E was quite high in summer (0.97) and spring (0.92), and lowest in autumn (0.81). Accordingly, the quality of the thermal environment was significantly low during autumn, and maximum during summer. However, despite the environmental temperature fluctuations, lizards exhibited remarkable stability in body temperatures. They also adjusted their preferred temperatures seasonally and doubled the thermal niche breadth they occupied during summer, thus enhancing thermoregulation efficiency. Whether or not these adjustments are plastic or fixed local adaptations remains to be explored in further research across multiple years and seasons, including additional insular populations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lizard Evolutionary Ecology in Islands)
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14 pages, 1777 KiB  
Article
Small Island Effects on the Thermal Biology of the Endemic Mediterranean Lizard Podarcis gaigeae
by Aikaterini Reppa, Ariadne Faidra Agori, Panayiota Santikou, Aristeidis Parmakelis, Panayiotis Pafilis, Efstratios D. Valakos and Kostas Sagonas
Animals 2023, 13(18), 2965; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13182965 - 19 Sep 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2409
Abstract
Ectotherms are vastly affected by climatic conditions as they rely on external sources of heat to regulate their body temperature, and changes in their habitat thermal quality could seriously affect their overall biology. To overcome the problems of a thermally unfavorable habitat, lizards [...] Read more.
Ectotherms are vastly affected by climatic conditions as they rely on external sources of heat to regulate their body temperature, and changes in their habitat thermal quality could seriously affect their overall biology. To overcome the problems of a thermally unfavorable habitat, lizards need to either adjust their thermoregulatory behavior or respond to directional selection and shift their preferred body temperatures. To assess the impact of habitat thermal quality on the thermoregulatory profile, we studied multiple islet and ‘mainland’ populations of the Skyros wall lizard Podarcis gaigeae, an endemic lacertid to Skyros Archipelago, Greece. We evaluated the effectiveness of thermoregulation (E) using the three main thermal parameters: body (Tb), operative (Te), and preferred (Tpref) temperatures. We first hypothesized that the spatial homogeneity, the scarcity of thermal shelters, and the exposure to higher winds on islets would result in more demanding climate conditions. Second, we anticipated that islet lizards would achieve higher E in response to the lower thermal quality therein. As hypothesized, thermal parameters differed between populations but not in the expected manner. Skyros ‘mainland’ habitats reached higher temperatures, had more intense fluctuations, and were of lower thermal quality. As a result, lizards showed higher accuracy, precision, and effectiveness of thermoregulation. Noteworthy, we found that lizards from different populations have shifted their thermal profile and preferred body temperatures to cope with the particular conditions prevailing in their habitats. The latter supports the labile view on the evolution of thermoregulation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lizard Evolutionary Ecology in Islands)
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13 pages, 2184 KiB  
Article
The Evolution of Diet and Morphology in Insular Lizards: Insights from a Replicated Island Introduction Experiment
by Colin M. Donihue, Anthony Herrel, Maxime Taverne, Johannes Foufopoulos and Panayiotis Pafilis
Animals 2023, 13(11), 1788; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13111788 - 27 May 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2431
Abstract
Resource-limited environments may drive the rapid evolution of phenotypic traits and ecological preferences optimizing the exploitation of resources. Very small islands are often characterized by reduced food availability, seasonal fluctuations in resources and strong unpredictability. These features may drive the evolution of phenotypic [...] Read more.
Resource-limited environments may drive the rapid evolution of phenotypic traits and ecological preferences optimizing the exploitation of resources. Very small islands are often characterized by reduced food availability, seasonal fluctuations in resources and strong unpredictability. These features may drive the evolution of phenotypic traits such as high bite forces, allowing animals to exploit a wider variety of the available resources. They may also lead to more generalist dietary patterns in response to food scarcity. However, the lack of predators and competitors on such small islands often also leads to high densities and the evolution of strong sexual dimorphism, which may also drive the evolution of bite force. Here, we take advantage of a unique replicated introduction experiment to test whether lizards introduced into very small islands alter their feeding ecology and use different resources, resulting in the evolution of a large body size, large head size and large bite forces. Our results show that three years after their introduction, the island lizards were larger and had greater bite forces and more pronounced sexual dimorphism. However, the diets were only marginally different between animals from the source population on a very large nearby island and those on the islets. Moreover, distinct differences in diet between animals on the different islets were observed, suggesting that the local environment is a strong driver of resource use. Overall, lizards with absolutely and relatively (adjusted for body size) large bite forces did eat larger and harder prey. Taken together, our data suggest that intraspecific competition is an important driver of the rapid evolution of bite force, which may allow these lizards to exploit the scarce and fluctuating resources on the islets. Whether or not lizards will evolve to include other types of food such as plants in their diet, facilitated by their large bite forces, remains to be explored in future studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lizard Evolutionary Ecology in Islands)
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12 pages, 2110 KiB  
Article
Assessing the Role of Lizards as Potential Pollinators of an Insular Plant Community and Its Intraspecific Variation
by Víctor Romero-Egea, Cristina Robles, Anna Traveset, Laura Del Rio and Sandra Hervías-Parejo
Animals 2023, 13(6), 1122; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13061122 - 22 Mar 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3111
Abstract
The role of lizards as potential pollinators on islands has been documented for either one or a few plants in different parts of the world, but it has never been assessed for an entire plant community. Here, we quantified interaction rate by lizards [...] Read more.
The role of lizards as potential pollinators on islands has been documented for either one or a few plants in different parts of the world, but it has never been assessed for an entire plant community. Here, we quantified interaction rate by lizards and evaluated intraspecific differences in the use of flowers on Cabrera Gran (Cabrera archipelago, Balearic Islands) by means of visual observations, automated cameras and the analysis of pollen grain samples. Overall, we recorded interactions of the Balearic wall lizard (Podarcis lilfordi) with flowers of 44 plant species, 72.7% of which were unknown to date. Although florivory occurs in some of these species (35%), the majority of visits were legitimate (65%); in addition, we found intraspecific differences in the interactions related to the sex and age of lizards. Our findings support the role of Balearic wall lizards as potential pollinators across the entire plant community, and their contribution to particular plant species, for instance the endangered Cistus heterophyllus carthaginensis. This study also documents the first record of another sympatric lizard (Tarentola mauritanica) visiting flowers and contributes to the few existing records of flower interactions involving geckos in the Paleartic ecozone. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lizard Evolutionary Ecology in Islands)
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22 pages, 3673 KiB  
Article
Long-Term Seed Dispersal within an Asymmetric Lizard-Plant Interaction
by Ana Pérez-Cembranos and Valentín Pérez-Mellado
Animals 2023, 13(6), 973; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13060973 - 8 Mar 2023
Viewed by 2430
Abstract
During the last 24 years, the mutualistic interaction between the dead horse arum, Helicodiceros muscivorus, and the Balearic lizard, Podarcis lilfordi, was studied on Aire Island (Balearic Islands, Spain). From a small population of a hundred plants, the dead horse arum [...] Read more.
During the last 24 years, the mutualistic interaction between the dead horse arum, Helicodiceros muscivorus, and the Balearic lizard, Podarcis lilfordi, was studied on Aire Island (Balearic Islands, Spain). From a small population of a hundred plants, the dead horse arum expanded extraordinarily throughout the island, reaching the highest known densities of the species and occupying areas of the island where it was not previously present. The current abundance of plants is a direct effect of the frugivorous activity of the Balearic lizard, which is the main, if not the only, effective seed disperser of the plant on Aire Island. However, abiotic factors predominated over biotic factors in driving abundance of plants. Over the years, plant densities varied significantly depending on the aridity of the island, with higher densities recorded in drier years. Lizards’ frugivorous activity and dispersal intensity was inversely correlated with annual rainfall. We found higher dispersal intensity in years with lower rainfall. We propose that the years of lower rainfall are those in which there is a lower prey availability. In such years, lizards compensate the shortage of other trophic resources with a more intense consumption of dead horse arum fruits. The mutualistic interaction is therefore asymmetric, since there is a greater influence of the frugivorous activity of the lizards on the plants than of the plants on lizards. It is, in short, a system chronically out of balance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lizard Evolutionary Ecology in Islands)
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11 pages, 1762 KiB  
Article
Species-Specific Spatial Patterns of Variation in Sexual Dimorphism by Two Lizards Settled in the Same Geographic Context
by Roberto Sacchi, Marco Mangiacotti, Stefano Scali, Federico Storniolo and Marco A. L. Zuffi
Animals 2023, 13(4), 736; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13040736 - 18 Feb 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1837
Abstract
The evolution of sexual dimorphism (SD) results from intricate interactions between sexual and natural selections. Sexually selected traits are expected to depend on individual condition, while natural selected traits should not be. Islands offer an ideal context to test how these drivers interact [...] Read more.
The evolution of sexual dimorphism (SD) results from intricate interactions between sexual and natural selections. Sexually selected traits are expected to depend on individual condition, while natural selected traits should not be. Islands offer an ideal context to test how these drivers interact with one another, as the size is a reliable proxy for resource availability. Here, we analysed SD in body size (snout-vent length) and head shape (assessed by geometric morphometric) in two species of lizards (Podarcis muralis and P. siculus) inhabiting the Tuscan archipelago (Central Italy). We found a strong SD variation among islands in both species. Furthermore, in P. muralis emerged some significant correlations between SD and island size, supporting the occurrence of possible effects of individual condition on SD. By contrast, SD in P. siculus followed opposite trajectories than in P. muralis, suggesting that in this species, natural selection could play a major role as a driver of SD. Our findings show that natural and sexual selection can interact in complex ways, and the responses are species-specific. Therefore, spatial patterns of variation in SD may strongly differ among species, even when they settle in the same geographic contest. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lizard Evolutionary Ecology in Islands)
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10 pages, 1039 KiB  
Article
What Influences the Prevalence and Intensity of Haemoparasites and Ectoparasites in an Insular Lizard?
by A. Isabel Ferreira, Isabel Damas-Moreira, Kate L. A. Marshall, Ana Perera and D. James Harris
Animals 2023, 13(4), 723; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13040723 - 17 Feb 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2127
Abstract
Island biogeography theories predict that characteristics such as island size, age, and isolation interplay in host-parasite dynamics. In this study, we analyzed haemogregarines of the Aegean wall lizard, Podarcis erhardii, to investigate how island characteristics relate to parasite prevalence and intensity. A [...] Read more.
Island biogeography theories predict that characteristics such as island size, age, and isolation interplay in host-parasite dynamics. In this study, we analyzed haemogregarines of the Aegean wall lizard, Podarcis erhardii, to investigate how island characteristics relate to parasite prevalence and intensity. A previous assessment of 19 Greek island populations suggested that isolation time and host population density were key predictors of haemogregarines. Here, by combining microscopy and genetic techniques, we extend this previous study to four additional islands: Syros, Folegandros, Santorini and Nea Kameni. We also recorded the prevalence of ticks and mites, definitive hosts for these parasites. The genetically identified haemogregarines are part of a clade with parasites from other lizard species, including some considered as Karyolysus, but others assigned to Hepatozoon. The prevalence of these parasites differed significantly between islands, while their intensity did not. The presence of ticks was associated with endoparasite prevalence, and males were more frequently infected by haemogregarines than females. Combining our data with that of the previous study, we found no significant impact of the island age and area on parasite prevalence. We also confirmed the presence of the unrelated parasite genus Schellackia through microscopy and DNA sequencing, which is the first record of this genus in this host species. Our results further highlight the complexity of host-parasite systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lizard Evolutionary Ecology in Islands)
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23 pages, 1203 KiB  
Article
Diet of the Insular Lizard, Podarcis lilfordi (Günther, 1874): Complementary Morphological and Molecular Approaches
by Iris Alemany, Ana Pérez-Cembranos, José A. Castro, Antònia Picornell, Valentín Pérez-Mellado and Cori Ramon
Animals 2023, 13(3), 507; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13030507 - 1 Feb 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2788
Abstract
The diets of insular lizards are extremely varied, depending on the different environmental characteristics of each island population. This is particularly evident in the case of the populations of small coastal islets of the Balearic Islands, where the Balearic lizard, Podarcis lilfordi, [...] Read more.
The diets of insular lizards are extremely varied, depending on the different environmental characteristics of each island population. This is particularly evident in the case of the populations of small coastal islets of the Balearic Islands, where the Balearic lizard, Podarcis lilfordi, is found. The study of trophic ecology carried out by means of traditional tools, such as morphological analysis of feces, has made it possible to detect numerous prey and nutritional elements. However, these methods are clearly insufficient, as some rare groups are not detected. It is also difficult to identify remains of marine subsidies or of foods contributed to these small islands by other predators, such as seabirds. The current study demonstrates the advantages of combining morphological diet analysis with the molecular study of individual feces samples obtained from the same populations. We obtained a greater diversity of prey groups using the combined methodologies, with each method identifying prey items that were not detected using the other method. Particularly, the study of diets at the molecular level identified plant species consumed by lizards that were, occasionally, not identified in morphological analyses. Conversely, the traditional morphological study of an equivalent number of fecal samples allowed for the identification of several prey groups that had not been detected in the molecular study. From this viewpoint, the advantages and disadvantages of each methodology are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lizard Evolutionary Ecology in Islands)
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16 pages, 5653 KiB  
Article
The Intriguing Biogeographic Pattern of the Italian Wall Lizard Podarcis siculus (Squamata: Lacertidae) in the Tuscan Archipelago Reveals the Existence of a New Ancient Insular Clade
by Francesco Gallozzi, Claudia Corti, Riccardo Castiglia, Vasco Avramo, Gabriele Senczuk, Claudia Mattioni and Paolo Colangelo
Animals 2023, 13(3), 386; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13030386 - 23 Jan 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4818
Abstract
The Tuscan Archipelago is one of the most ancient and ecologically heterogeneous island systems in the Mediterranean. The biodiversity of these islands was strongly shaped by the Pliocene and Pleistocene sea regressions and transgression, resulting in different waves of colonization and isolation of [...] Read more.
The Tuscan Archipelago is one of the most ancient and ecologically heterogeneous island systems in the Mediterranean. The biodiversity of these islands was strongly shaped by the Pliocene and Pleistocene sea regressions and transgression, resulting in different waves of colonization and isolation of species coming from the mainland. The Italian wall lizard, Podarcis siculus, is present on the following islands of the Tuscan Archipelago: Elba, Giglio, Giannutri, Capraia, Montecristo and Cerboli. The species in the area displays a relatively high morphological variability that in the past led to the description of several subspecies. In this study, both the genetic and morphological diversity of P. siculus of the Tuscan Archipelago were investigated. Specifically, the meristic characters and the dorsal pattern were analyzed, while the genetic relationships among these populations were explored with mtDNA and microsatellite nuclear markers to reconstruct the colonization history of the Archipelago. Our results converge in the identification of at least two different waves of colonization in the Archipelago: Elba, and the populations of Cerboli and Montecristo probably originate from historical introductions from mainland Tuscany, while those of Giglio and Capraia are surviving populations of an ancient lineage which colonized the Tuscan Archipelago during the Pliocene and which shares a common ancestry with the P. siculus populations of south-eastern Italy. Giannutri perhaps represents an interesting case of hybridization between the populations from mainland Tuscany and the Giglio-Capraia clade. Based on the high phenotypic and molecular distinctiveness of this ancient clade, these populations should be treated as distinct units deserving conservation and management efforts as well as further investigation to assess their taxonomic status. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lizard Evolutionary Ecology in Islands)
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Review

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22 pages, 2516 KiB  
Review
Morphology, Behaviour and Evolution of Gallotia Lizards from the Canary Islands
by Miguel Molina-Borja and Martha L. Bohórquez-Alonso
Animals 2023, 13(14), 2319; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13142319 - 15 Jul 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3248
Abstract
We summarize, here, the results from several studies conducted over many years on several endemic species of lizards (genus Gallotia) from the Canary Islands. Quantitative analyses show clear differences both among the species of every island and populations within each species. Sexual [...] Read more.
We summarize, here, the results from several studies conducted over many years on several endemic species of lizards (genus Gallotia) from the Canary Islands. Quantitative analyses show clear differences both among the species of every island and populations within each species. Sexual dimorphism exists in all analysed species, and a phylogenetic analysis shows that the degree of dimorphism did not change along the evolutionary history of the Canary Islands: species with large and small body sizes have a similar degree of sexual dimorphism, with male body size changes closely following those undergone by females. In G. caesaris (from El Hierro and La Gomera islands) and in G. stehlini (from Gran Canaria), longer hind limb length was correlated with more open habitats. Within most species, males are more conspicuous than females, mainly in terms of body size, behaviour and coloration pattern. Lateral colour spots are blue in most species and green in others. In G. galloti from Tenerife, male lateral spots have larger spot areas and percentage of reflectance in the ultraviolet/blue part of the spectrum than females. This trait shows a monthly variation along April to July, both in males and females, its magnitude being larger in May–June. Behaviour analysis, especially in the last species, shows a great diversity in behaviour patterns, and analysis of intrasexual male competition revealed that contest outcome depends on several morphological and colouration characteristics but mainly on the individual’s behaviour. Detailed behavioural analyses were useful for managing a few captive individuals of the highly endangered G. bravoana from La Gomera island. Experimental analyses of some behaviours in the endemic Hierro island lizard (G. simonyi, in danger of extinction) show that individuals may learn to recognize predator models and increase their running speeds with training. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lizard Evolutionary Ecology in Islands)
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