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Aerospace
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Advances in Landing Systems Engineering
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Advances in Landing Systems Engineering

A special issue of Aerospace (ISSN 2226-4310). This special issue belongs to the section "Aeronautics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2025) | Viewed by 12963

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Martin Skote

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Cranfield University, Cranfield MK43 0AL, UK
Interests: turbulence; boundary layer flows; flow control; atmospheric flow; direct numerical simulation (DNS); computational fluid dynamics (CFD); turbulence modelling; fluid dynamics applied on biophysics; multiphase flow; aerodynamics; flapping wing insect flight; aerospace landing systems
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Craig Lawson

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Cranfield University, Cranfield MK43 0AL, UK
Interests: aeronautical systems; aerospace manufacturing; aircraft design; autonomous systems; computing, simulation and modelling; systems engineering
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The take-off and landing of an aircraft are critical and complex processes involving several systems such as landing gear, airport infrastructure and air traffic management. The words “landing systems” hence refer not only to the engineering concepts found in the physical landing gear but the whole framework of complex systems surrounding this part of the aircraft and its operation.

The maturity of aircraft design has led to lighter aircraft fuselage and thinner wings, as well as quieter engines. The development of Landing Gear is, however, lagging due to that technological improvements of other aircraft parts cannot be directly transferred to the undercarriage (e.g., the use of composites). However, recent advances in technologies such as numerical and experimental methods, AI, optimization, control and modelling, together with new manufacturing techniques open up the design space for landing gear components. In addition, new propulsion systems, motivated by the decarbonization of air travel, provide an opportunity for development of novel airframes and landing systems.

Landing Systems Engineering is a multidisciplinary topic involving a wide range of disciplines, spanning from Molecular Dynamics to Systems Integration, hence a broad spectrum of engineering disciplines overlaps, and requires intense collaboration between scientists and engineers in different fields. The goal of this Special Issue is to collect advances in the field encompassing all aspects of the complex landing system. One enabler of the Landing Systems development is the establishment of new design criteria by transforming the empirical-based landing gear into a digital-model based product, hence enabling a systems-of-systems approach, and to provide opportunities for optimization and adoption of new materials and technologies.

Prof. Dr. Martin Skote
Dr. Craig Lawson
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Aerospace is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • landing gear systems
  • mechanical engineering
  • novel materials
  • optimization
  • multiphysics
  • interdisciplinary
  • noise
  • systems engineering
  • prognostics and health management

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Related Special Issue

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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21 pages, 3662 KB  
Article
Study on the Influence of Soil Parameters on the Cushioning Performance of Landing Airbags
by Yichen Wang, Xuan Zhou, Jingang Liu, Xiaolun Li, Jiang Wang and Pei Zhang
Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030267 - 12 Mar 2026
Viewed by 343
Abstract
To investigate the influence of soil parameters on the cushioning performance of landing airbags, a landing airbag cushioning dynamics model considering soil characteristics was established based on the control volume method and a crushable foam model. Experimental validation was conducted for both the [...] Read more.
To investigate the influence of soil parameters on the cushioning performance of landing airbags, a landing airbag cushioning dynamics model considering soil characteristics was established based on the control volume method and a crushable foam model. Experimental validation was conducted for both the airbag cushioning model and the soil impact model, respectively, with good consistency between simulated and experimental results. Based on the established model, the influence of soil on the cushioning performance of landing airbags was analyzed. The analysis results indicate that soil absorbs energy through compressive deformation during the cushioning process, thereby exhibiting a certain degree of cushioning performance. Softer soil absorbs more energy, and the payload is less prone to rebound. However, excessively soft soil causes the airbag to sink into the soil, hindering the venting of gas outward and resulting in hard landings for payloads. Therefore, three indicators—airbag peak pressure, payload maximum acceleration, and maximum drop height—are used to comprehensively evaluate the cushioning performance of airbags, and the influence laws of soil parameters are quantitatively researched. The research shows that the soil density, shear modulus, and yield parameters A1 and A2 significantly influence cushioning performance. Specifically, the shear modulus and yield parameter A1 exhibit logarithmic growth relationships with the three cushioning performance indicators, while the yield parameter A2 and soil density show linear growth relationships with the three cushioning performance indicators. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Landing Systems Engineering)
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29 pages, 4481 KB  
Article
Deriving Occurrence Variability in Fatigue Critical Turning Manoeuvres for Landing Gear Design from Air Traffic Data
by Joshua Hoole, Shashidhar Ramachandra, Julian Booker and Jonathan Cooper
Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 257; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030257 - 10 Mar 2026
Viewed by 328
Abstract
The safety-critical nature of aircraft landing gear has led to interest in Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) and Remaining Useful Life (RUL) methodologies for the fatigue substantiation of landing gear assemblies. Due to the engineering effort that can be required to implement such approaches, [...] Read more.
The safety-critical nature of aircraft landing gear has led to interest in Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) and Remaining Useful Life (RUL) methodologies for the fatigue substantiation of landing gear assemblies. Due to the engineering effort that can be required to implement such approaches, it is prudent to target SHM and RUL activities at specific aircraft fleets. This paper employs air traffic data in the form of Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) data to characterise the occurrence and severity of ground turns performed across fleets of differing aircraft type, location and operator characteristics. From the evaluation of 3250 flights, it was observed at the fleet level that ground turn characteristics show limited sensitivity to the aircraft’s geographical location and operator characteristics, excluding cargo aircraft and those operated by Ultra-Low-Cost Carriers. However, assessment of individual aircraft highlighted that the occurrence rate of fatigue-critical pivot turns can exceed twice that of the remaining aircraft fleet, suggesting that SHM and RUL activities should be focused on aircraft that deviate significantly from the expected fleet-wide behaviour. Finally, this paper presents an initial investigation into inferring the Nose Wheel Steering angle provided from Quick Access Recorder flight data directly from ADS-B trajectories. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Landing Systems Engineering)
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20 pages, 4870 KB  
Article
Nose Landing Gear Shimmy Analysis with Variable System Stiffness Under Time-Varying Load
by Yiyao Jiang, Jiyong Sun, Sheng Zhong and Bingyan Jiang
Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 926; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100926 - 14 Oct 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1356
Abstract
Vertical load fluctuations alter nose landing gear (NLG) system stiffness and complicate shimmy dynamics. Based on the full-scale NLG static stiffness test data, the relationship between shock absorber stroke and system stiffness was fitted, and a nonlinear shimmy model considering time-varying loads was [...] Read more.
Vertical load fluctuations alter nose landing gear (NLG) system stiffness and complicate shimmy dynamics. Based on the full-scale NLG static stiffness test data, the relationship between shock absorber stroke and system stiffness was fitted, and a nonlinear shimmy model considering time-varying loads was established. The numerical solution was achieved using the established Simscape model. The research results show that, under constant load conditions, considering the nonlinear growth characteristic of NLG system stiffness with shock absorber stroke, the lateral shimmy amplitude of the NLG is significantly reduced, while the rotational shimmy amplitude increases slightly; among these, lateral stiffness plays a dominant role in influencing shimmy stability. In addition, time-varying loads aggravate shimmy through two paths: first, the fluctuation of load amplitude directly changes the force state; second, vertical movement causes changes in the shock absorber stroke, which in turn leads to dynamic adjustment of system stiffness. This is of great help in guiding the stiffness design of the NLG system and accurately evaluating shimmy stability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Landing Systems Engineering)
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22 pages, 1725 KB  
Article
Stochastic Model Predictive Control for Parafoil System via Markov-Based Multi-Scenario Optimization
by Qi Feng, Qingbin Zhang, Zhiwei Feng, Jianquan Ge, Qingquan Chen, Linhong Li and Yujiao Huang
Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 810; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090810 - 8 Sep 2025
Viewed by 1019
Abstract
As an essential technology for precision airdrop missions, parafoil systems have gained widespread adoption in military and civilian applications due to their superior glide performance and maneuverability compared to conventional parachutes. Addressing the trajectory-tracking control challenges of the parafoil system under significant wind [...] Read more.
As an essential technology for precision airdrop missions, parafoil systems have gained widespread adoption in military and civilian applications due to their superior glide performance and maneuverability compared to conventional parachutes. Addressing the trajectory-tracking control challenges of the parafoil system under significant wind disturbances, characterized by wind uncertainty and system underactuation, this paper proposes a stochastic model predictive control (SMPC) framework based on Markov-based multi-scenario optimization. Traditional deterministic model predictive control (MPC) methods often exhibit excessive conservatism due to reliance on worst-case assumptions and fail to capture the time-varying nature of real-world wind fields. To address these limitations, a high-fidelity dynamic model is developed to accurately characterize aerodynamic coupling effects, overcoming the oversimplifications of conventional three-degree-of-freedom point-mass models. Leveraging Markov state transitions, multiple wind-disturbance scenarios are dynamically generated, effectively overcoming the limitations of independent and identically distributed hypotheses in modeling realistic wind variations. A probabilistic constraint-reconstruction strategy combined with a rolling time-domain covariance update mechanism mitigates uncertainties and enables cooperative optimization of inner-loop attitude stabilization and outer-loop trajectory tracking. The simulation results demonstrate that the SMPC framework achieves superior comprehensive performance compared to deterministic MPC, evidenced by significant reductions in maximum position error, average position error, and control effort variation rate, along with a 94% tracking success rate. By balancing robustness, tracking precision, and computational efficiency, the method provides a theoretical foundation and a promising simulation-validated solution for airdrop missions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Landing Systems Engineering)
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14 pages, 2483 KB  
Article
Study on the Test and Adjustment Method of Civil Aircraft Taxiing Deviation
by Wenjie Chen, Yong Chen, Yongxiang Xu and Yimin Jiang
Aerospace 2024, 11(9), 732; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11090732 - 6 Sep 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1411
Abstract
Civil aircrafts are highly complex systems. During the manufacturing process, deviations can occur due to cumulative errors in installation, system control, and other factors. These deviations often lead to the phenomenon of aircraft “runaway” during ground taxiing, taking off, and landing. Corrective maneuvers [...] Read more.
Civil aircrafts are highly complex systems. During the manufacturing process, deviations can occur due to cumulative errors in installation, system control, and other factors. These deviations often lead to the phenomenon of aircraft “runaway” during ground taxiing, taking off, and landing. Corrective maneuvers to address this issue not only increase the pilot’s workload but also heighten the risk of aircraft deviation from the runway. Therefore, accurately testing and aligning the side deviation angle of an aircraft is crucial for ensuring safe operations. In this paper, we first construct a mathematical model of aircraft dynamics and derive a simplified mathematical model specifically designed for aircraft trimming tests. Next, a ground taxiing trimming test is conducted to verify the accuracy of this simplified model. Additionally, we investigate the crosswind factor, which has the greatest impact on side deviation measurements, to establish the relationship between the crosswind factor and the nose wheel trimming angle. Based on this, we innovatively propose a method for achieving aircraft trimming through the equivalent trimming angle of the nose wheel. Ultimately, this approach allows aircraft trimming to be achieved with a single taxiing side deviation test, which will reduce the cost of flight tests and normal operation of the airplane when finding taxiing deviation. The method innovatively proposed in this paper offers an efficient and accurate solution for aircraft trimming tests and adjustments, significantly reducing the cost of such tests and improving the safety of civil aircraft. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Landing Systems Engineering)
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Review

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25 pages, 6918 KB  
Review
A Review of Material-Related Mechanical Failures and Load Monitoring-Based Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) Technologies in Aircraft Landing Gear
by Kailun Deng, Agusmian Partogi Ompusunggu, Yigeng Xu, Martin Skote and Yifan Zhao
Aerospace 2025, 12(3), 266; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12030266 - 20 Mar 2025
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6890
Abstract
The aircraft landing gear system is vital in ensuring the aircraft’s functional completeness and operational safety. The mechanical structures of the landing gear must withstand significant operational forces, including repeated high-intensity impact loads, throughout their service life. At the same time, they must [...] Read more.
The aircraft landing gear system is vital in ensuring the aircraft’s functional completeness and operational safety. The mechanical structures of the landing gear must withstand significant operational forces, including repeated high-intensity impact loads, throughout their service life. At the same time, they must resist environmental degradation, such as corrosion, temperature fluctuations, and humidity, to ensure structural integrity and long-term reliability. Under this premise, investigating material-related mechanical failures in the landing gear is of great significance for preventing landing gear failures and ensuring aviation safety. Compared to failure investigations, structural health monitoring (SHM) plays a more active role in failure prevention for aircraft landing gears. SHM technologies identify the precursors of potential failures and continuously monitor the operational or health conditions of landing gear structures, which facilitates condition-based maintenance. This paper reviews various landing gear material-related failure investigations. The review suggests a significant portion of these failures can be attributed to material fatigue, which is either induced by abnormal high-stress concentration or corrosion. This paper also reviews a series of load monitoring-based landing gear SHM studies. It is revealed that weight and balance measurement, hard landing detection, and structure load monitoring are the most typical monitoring activities in landing gears. An analytical discussion is also presented on the correlation between reviewed landing gear failures and SHM activities, a comparison of sensors, and the potential shift in load-based landing gear SHM in response to the transition of landing gear design philosophy from safe life to damage tolerance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Landing Systems Engineering)
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