A Sustainable Water Management Framework for Schools in Sub-Saharan Africa

Abstract

Safe and adequate water supply, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) in schools are prerequisites within the right to basic education. WASH facilities across schools in developing nations, particularly in Africa, are unsatisfactory and expose children to risks of disease and infection. This study aims to gather insights into the WASH status of secondary schools in Ibadan, Nigeria, to develop a sustainable water management framework for schools. A concurrent mixed-method design (questionnaires and interviews) was adopted to benchmark water management in schools and inform the design of a framework. Results reveal a wealth of issues and concerns that include infrastructure challenges accessing reliable and safe water supplies, rundown and unhygienic toilet/urinal facilities, and dilapidated sinks/taps, plus resource challenges, such as an absence of tissue paper and soap. These issues are exposing schoolchildren to unnecessary health risks, further supported by reported illnesses and reduced school attendance. Based on these findings, and guided by the UN SDG#6 targets, a water improvement framework has been created and validated by school officials. The framework identifies both short-term and long-term guidance/actions to improve water management in schools across Sub-Saharan Africa. These form crucial steps toward better WASH, building healthier communities and enhancing educational environments and outcomes for schoolchildren.

1. Introduction

The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG #6, aim to ensure the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. However, billions of the poorest and most vulnerable people still lack access to safely managed drinking water, sanitation, and basic hygiene services [1].

Among the most affected are schoolchildren, especially in developing nations. The maintenance and refurbishment of school buildings, including water-related facilities such as toilets, urinals, and sinks, are essential but often underreported [2,3,4,5]. El-Nwsany et al. [6] emphasize that effective water management is vital for creating sustainable schools that support both education and infrastructure.

The health implications of inadequate WASH are severe. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that around 1.7 billion cases of childhood diarrhea occur annually, contributing to approximately 600,000 child deaths each year [7,8]. In 2011 alone, infectious diarrhea caused about 700,000 deaths in children under five, leading to an estimated 250 million lost school days [9,10]. Schoolchildren, due to their social interactions, are rapid transmitters of infections. UNICEF [11] notes that infections contracted at school often spread to half of household members.

Globally, 19% of all infectious diseases are linked to poor WASH conditions [12]. In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), nearly half of schools lack access to drinking water, and where toilets exist, the student-to-toilet ratio often exceeds recommended guidelines [13]. Unsurprisingly, infectious diseases such as diarrhea, cholera, typhoid, and hepatitis remain prevalent in areas with poor WASH [14,15,16].

To maintain a clean, odour-free, and safe school environment, appropriate WASH initiatives are essential [17]. Access to safe water and sanitation is a prerequisite for the right to basic education [11]. The absence of these facilities hampers education quality and disproportionately affects girls, who may miss school during menstruation due to inadequate hygiene support [18].

Inadequate WASH facilities pose a direct health risk. Non-compliant toilets can spread disease, and simple interventions like handwashing can prevent up to one-third of diarrhea cases in low- and middle-income countries [19].

The situation is dire in many countries:

• Nigeria: ~2300 children under five die daily, with 10% of deaths caused by diarrhea [20].
• Globally, about 88% of diarrhea cases are linked to poor sanitation and contaminated water [21].
• Ethiopia: Among the lowest in SSA for safe water access; water-related diseases are a top three cause of death [22].
• Zambia: 25% of schools lack basic water; pit latrines are common and poorly constructed [23,24].
• Uganda: Only 27% of schools have handwashing facilities, with unconfirmed functionality [25].
• Ghana: Despite progress in water access, 80% of the population and most schools lack sanitation and hygiene facilities [17,26].
• Ethiopia (rural): Only 1% of schools have on-premises water, adequate sanitation, and handwashing facilities [27].

The gendered impact of poor WASH in schools is well-documented. Girls face challenges managing menstruation due to lack of privacy, water, soap, and disposal facilities [24,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37]. This affects their attendance, dignity, and educational progression.

The availability and functionality of WASH facilities are crucial [38]. Antwi-Agyei et al. [39] found that while 45 of 70 schools had handwashing stations, only 39% had soap, and only half had a year-round water supply. Similar findings were reported in Tanzania [40]. In Kenya, a randomized controlled trial showed that improved WASH environments increased school attendance among girls [41].

However, infrastructure alone is not enough. Agol and Harvey et al. [24] highlight that toilet, student ratios can reach 90:1, and handwashing facilities are often inadequate. WASH infrastructure must be scaled to student population to be effective.

The importance of establishing a Sustainable Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (SWASH) environment across both public and private domains—such as schools, places of worship, marketplaces, and homes, has become increasingly urgent in recent years. The limited availability and accessibility of WASH services not only undermines public health but also exacerbates the spread of infectious diseases, including COVID-19, by influencing the virus’s survival and transmission pathways [16].

In this context, WASH in schools (WinS) emerges as a broad yet indispensable component in the fight against disease transmission. It plays a pivotal role across multiple stages: from raising awareness and managing infections to prevent reinfection within communities. WinS is not only about promoting hygiene and improving access to quality education but also about reinforcing national and local strategies aimed at ensuring equitable and sustainable access to safe water and basic sanitation services in educational settings.

The overarching goal of WinS is to enhance the health and academic performance of school-aged children and, by extension, their families, by reducing the prevalence of waterborne and sanitation-related illnesses [11]. However, despite its significance, many developing nations continue to fall short in addressing WASH challenges—particularly in combating open defecation. Investments in WASH infrastructure risk being ineffective if not accompanied by education on proper usage and sustainable management of these facilities.

UNICEF [11] has highlighted that hygienic behaviours—such as toilet use, handwashing, and water collection, comprise a series of small but essential steps. Yet, a critical gap remains in understanding local WASH-related needs, especially the impact of inadequate sanitation on girls and female teachers, who are disproportionately affected by the lack of privacy and menstrual hygiene support.

To date, the majority of WASH-related research has focused on households [42] and healthcare facilities [43], leaving a significant knowledge gap regarding the status of WASH in schools, particularly in government-owned institutions. Addressing this gap, the present study seeks to assess the WASH conditions in two government-owned secondary schools in Ibadan, Nigeria, and to develop a sustainable water management framework. This framework aims to provide actionable guidance for improving WASH in schools across Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), contributing to broader goals of health, education, and gender equity.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The City of Ibadan (Figure 1), in the southwestern part of Nigeria, was founded in the 1830s as a refugee camp due to the collapse of the old Oyo and Owu empires [44]. The urbanization, civilization, and industrialization that happened in the pre-independence and post-independence epochs have, however, changed the nature and global reach of the city. In 2006, the National Population Commission [45] recorded over 2,550,593 people living in Ibadan, with an average population density of 828 persons per Km². Most of these people were traders, farmers, fishermen, civil servants, and commercial drivers, while Christianity, Islam, and traditional worship are the major religions [46], and the dominant spoken language is Yoruba.

Ibadan is located about 120 km northeast of Lagos (the economic capital of West Africa), and 120 km east of the international border with the Republic of Benin. As with many urbanizing communities in other developing countries, Ibadan is faced with a plethora of sanitation challenges that include the unsanitary condition of buildings, alongside an absence of sanitary facilities. The prime position of the city makes it an attractive location for migration from neighboring cities, which further aids its degeneration [44]. It is common to see heaps of refuse littering major streets in the city [47]. Like most SSA cities, sanitation provisions in Ibadan are hugely inadequate, especially where the municipality is without potable water, toilets, and other sanitary facilities. Most people do not have access to a hygienic toilet facility, with large amounts of fecal waste discharged to the environment without appropriate treatment, a likely source of infectious disease burden and with a negative impact on quality of life [48].

2.2. Case Studies

Most of the primary and secondary schools in Oyo State, Nigeria are controlled by the State Universal Basic Education Board (SUBEB), whilst some of the schools are directly supervised by the Ministry of Education, which includes those in this study. The secondary schools in Oyo State are either single-sex (male or female), mixed, or special schools (for those with disabilities and learning difficulties).

The first case study is an all-boys school, founded in 1929, located on the northwestern hilly exit of Ibadan, Nigeria. While modeled on the British public boarding schools of the era, nowadays it is mostly populated by day students. The current student population is ~2300 boys. It takes about 14–18 min to walk from the main gate to the academic buildings. There are different houses (dormitories) in the school. Apart from the blocks of classrooms, laboratories, library, and administrative buildings, the school has a football (soccer) pitch, plus a cricket pitch and badminton courts. The main buildings have been refurbished over the years, mostly facilitated by the old boys (alumni) of the school. Many staff live on site in the staff quarters, with an intermittent electricity supply supported by alternative power supplies, such as generators and local inverters. The school has no internet access.

The second case study is an all-girls secondary school that was established in 1952 on a 20-acre site with a wooded landscape. It was planned to be a fully residential school, but day students were later admitted. The current student population is ~800 girls. The school is fenced and secured with a gate and shares a fence with the boys school at the rear of the site. The school premises consist of blocks of classrooms, science laboratories, a library, a dining hall, administrative buildings, a kitchen, and blocks of toilets. Until it moved to its current location in 1967, the school was located about 110 km away, operated with only three dormitories, and had only live-in boarders. Upon its relocation, another building was added to increase it to four dormitories. The academic and residential sections of the school are naturally demarcated by a stream that flows through the school; the volume of water in this stream varies according to the season. The crop of buildings is a mix of old archaic (that are as old as when the school was founded) and modern structures, with no internet access and an intermittent electricity supply.

2.3. Data Collection and Analyses

A pragmatism-based [49] mixed-method design [50], using both inductive (i.e., an inquiry to synthesize experiences and observations) and deductive (i.e., reasoning from the research to understand the general perspective) research approaches, was utilized to align with study’s aim. The quantitative aspect of the research strategy was present in the use of questionnaires, while the qualitative aspect was facilitated by using semi-structured interviews as the method of inquiry (Figure 2).

Prior to the main data collection, a reconnaissance survey was carried out to familiarize the researchers with both schools’ WASH facilities and their users (both the staff and the students). This included the inspection of the water supply, toilets, sanitation, and drainage of both schools [30]. With the approval of relevant authorities, unannounced visits were made to the schools to obtain an authentic depiction of WASH in the schools. These observations were used to inform the design of the main data collection instruments, namely questionnaires and interviews at both schools. These tools were used to determine the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of the school children and teachers towards WASH.

The main purpose of the questionnaire was to solicit opinions from the school children about their school WASH facilities. Section one was designed to capture the participant’s personal details, section two asked about water supply, section three focused on sanitation and drainage, section four asked about toilets, section five was about hygiene, and section six asked about health. In the sections, participants were asked to record their responses to several Likert-point scale questions about their satisfaction, agreement, frequency, concern, and awareness. A small number of open-ended questions (dual approach) were also included to elicit rich qualitative data, alongside the quantitative data.

The main purpose of the interviews was to gather observations and views of teachers and non-teaching staff about WASH at their schools. A semi-structured interview approach was used, where the general themes of the questions accorded with those included in the questionnaire. In part, this was also conducted to provide confirmatory evidence of the schoolchildren’s responses and to reveal any information that may be unknown to the schoolchildren. The data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) for Windows, IBM Statistics version 20.0 [51,52].

The evidence collated from both schools was then utilized to inform the creation of a Sustainable Water Management Framework for Schools, which was guided by the UN Targets that support Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG#6: Water and Sanitation). The creation of the framework was based on the collective roundtable opinions of the authorship team who have shared water/environmental engineering and sustainability project experiences exceeding 100 years and 50 years, respectively. However, since this approach could be considered subjective, a decision was made to seek the opinions of independent experts from the education sector, with extensive local knowledge and experiences, to validate its creation. This was achieved through a questionnaire survey which invited them to respond to feedback questions about the framework and to also invited them to provide any written comments.

Ethics and moral standards are integral to research studies. Therefore, all participants were informed that their involvement in the study was voluntary and their consent to take part in any aspect of the study meant their responses would be anonymous. Furthermore, all participants were informed that they could choose to withdraw before, during, and up to two weeks after their involvement in the study. The work was conducted in accordance with the ethics regulations at the University of Ibadan, Nigeria.

3. Results

The findings of the data analyses are presented beneath, under five main sections: (i) inspection of WASH facilities in the schools, (ii) questionnaire participant demographics, (iii) questionnaire responses, (iv) interview participants demographics, and (v) interview responses.

3.1. Inspection of WASH Facilities in the Schools

3.1.1. The Boys School

The school’s water supply is delivered from unmonitored on-campus wells (n = 3) and boreholes (n = 3). The water supply is mostly protected from contamination during its transfer from the source and to the school buildings. There are no obvious signs of leakage or damage to pipework and there are several tanks used to store the water. However, not all of these have filters fitted, so it is possible that low-quality water could enter the potable water supply. General storage, distribution, and supply facilities across the school are unmaintained so risk of contamination is possible. Whilst water treatment facilities are available on site, procedures for protecting drinking water in the school are not consistently followed and, if contamination was to occur, staff are insufficiently trained to remediate the matter.

Quantities of available water appear adequate, and records indicate there have been no reported incidences of shortage. Moreover, the smell, taste, and appearance of the water is acceptable for drinking use. However, it is noted that many people opt to buy sachet water, or bring water from home, rather than use the school supply for drinking purposes. Clearly identified, safe drinking points to access potable water are limited across the school and these are inadequately maintained.

There are sufficient toilets (water closet type) to cope with the size of the school population, with all buildings having a toilet block designed and built to exclude disease vectors. Unfortunately, poor maintenance means there is a shortage of fully working toilets available for use. All the toilet cubicles have been designed to offer privacy and security. However, the toilet blocks do not provide lighting and many of the door locks on the cubicles are no longer working. The toilets are routinely cleaned but many are soiled and unhygienic. The drainage from the toilets is exposed open channels, with some repair/maintenance issues that restrict flow. Personal cleaning after use of the toilets is a major issue across the school, with none of the toilets offering tissue paper or any alternative. Urinals are installed in the toilet blocks, but these are inoperative, as the tippy-taps do not work. There are no adapted facilities (toilets or handwashing) for disabled people on the site.

Handwashing and cleaning facilities, plus showers or other body washing facilities, are adequate for the school population, particularly with respect to boarding students. These appear to all be in working order. However, none of these facilities have been adapted for disabled students. Most disappointingly, no soap or any alternatives were available in any of the toilet blocks on the campus.

3.1.2. The Girls School

The school’s water supply is delivered from unmonitored on-campus wells (n = 2) and boreholes (n = 2). The well lids are broken, and the collection buckets are dirty, so contamination is a possibility. There are signs of leaking and damaged pipework, and the water storage tanks are dirty and missing treatment filters, which means the supply could become further contaminated. General storage, distribution, and supply facilities across the school are unmaintained and there are no procedures in place for protecting drinking water in the school. Topographically, the school is in a low-lying area, so the water supply is typically available all year round. There is also a small river crossing the campus. This, however, from appearance, may well be contaminated and should not be used for bathing/swimming and is not fit for consumption.

Access to potable water is limited across the school, with a scarcity of identified safe drinking points (Figure 3). For instance, some classroom blocks have no nearby access to drinking points. Furthermore, the available drinking points are poorly maintained. There is also a shortage of available handwashing and cleaning facilities on campus for the size of the school population. Furthermore, some of the handwashing points have taps missing. Soap or alternatives are absent for handwashing across the school, the exception being two sinks (in the hall). There are sufficient showers and places for body washing (particularly for boarders). However, some of the taps and showers are damaged and need replacing. Similarly, there are sufficient laundry facilities but many of the facilities are old and are no longer functioning.

There are sufficient toilets (water closet type) for the size of the school population, and they are appropriate for the local culture and social conditions, gender, and age of the children. Poor maintenance, however, means there is a shortage of fully working toilets available for use. All the toilet cubicles have been designed to offer privacy and security. However, the toilet blocks do not provide lighting and many of the door locks on the cubicles are no longer working so there is limited privacy and security for the girls using the toilets. There is no effective cleaning routine in operation so many toilets are soiled and unhygienic. Drainage from the toilets is exposed in open channels in urgent need of repair/maintenance because there are many fractured portions. Furthermore, the dumping of solids such as paper, nylon, or pad materials compounds the drainage issue. Personal cleansing is a major issue across the school, with none of the toilets offering tissue paper or any alternative and no adequate water. Furthermore, there are no adapted facilities (toilets or handwashing) for disabled persons on the site.

3.2. Questionnaire Participant Demographics

Questionnaire participants from the boys’ school (n = 244) represent a response rate of 73.9%. Most of the participants are day attendees (n = 216), with very few living onsite as boarders (n = 28). The mean age of the male students who responded is 16.1 years (S.D. 2.2). The questionnaire participants from the girl’s school (n = 86) represent a response rate of 26.1%. As with the boys’ school, most participants are day attendees (n = 80), with very few living onsite as boarders (n = 6). The mean age of the female students who responded was 15 years (S.D. 1.5).

3.3. Questionnaire Responses

Children were asked about their primary water source when at school. This revealed that groundwater (well and borehole) was the main source (62.7% boys; 72.5% girls). In terms of access to water points, most children stated that they could obtain it within 50 m of their classrooms (65.4% boys; 75% girls), although for others it was much further, with some saying it was 200–500 m for them to access water. When asked about the quality of their water at school, many children indicated that their water appeared clean/clear (93.4% boys; 94.1% girls), with a minority claiming there were particles present and in some cases a change in the water colour. When children were asked about treating their water, it was revealed most children treated their water with chemicals or both chemicals and filters. However, a minority of boys (19.2%) said they applied no water treatments.

Children were asked about their toilet habits at school. This showed that water cisterns are the main choice (95.0% boys; 92.3% girls). However, a minority of children (both boys and girls) claim they choose open defecation (1.3% boys; 1.5% girls) rather than using the school facilities. This may be due to some children claiming the toilets are dilapidated or always dirty (14.5% boys; 15.2% girls). Most children, however, judged the toilets to be acceptable for use, despite some children disclosing that excreta, smell, and flies are an issue (32.1% boys; 32.9% girls). Many children state that there is no available running water in some of the toilet blocks (32.8% boys; 36.9% girls), which means many children choose to fetch water from the nearest well for personal cleaning. A combination of tissue paper and water is the most popular choice of personal cleaning (58.3% boys; 49.4% girls). The absence of any school-provided tissue paper means children must always remember to bring their toilet tissue to school with them, beg/borrow from others, clean without tissue paper, or not clean themselves. Whenever possible, nearly all girls (79.1%) state that they always flush the toilet after use, whereas many boys (19.7%) state they only sometimes flush the toilet after use. Similarly, nearly all girls (99%) always wash or sometimes wash their hands after using the toilet, whereas some boys (1.7%) state that they never wash their hands after using the toilet.

The children were also asked about their general hygiene behaviors at school (Figure 4,

Table 1. Summary of key WASH status indicators (hygiene) across schools.

S/N	Hygiene Indicator	Girls’ School (%)	Boys’ School (%)
1	Do you wash your hands after playing?—Yes	87.2	73
	—No	12.8	25.4
	—No Response	0	1.6
2	How often do you wash your hands after playing?—Always	41.9	49.6
	—Sometimes	55.8	43.9
	—I do not wash my hands at all	1.2	4.9
	—No Response	1.2	1.6
3	How many times do you bath in a day?—Once	18.6	22.1
	—Twice	79.1	70.1
	—More than twice	2.3	6.1
	—No Response	0	1.6
4	Do you wash your hands before eating?—Yes	91.9	93
	—No	8.1	4.9
	—No Response	0	2
5	Whenever you wash your hands, do you use soap?—Yes	57	53.3
	—No	14	18
	—Sometimes	29.1	26.2
	—No Response	0	2.5
6	How do you wash your hands?—One hand at a time	10.5	13.1
	—Two hands in bowl	24.4	38.5
	—Two hands under running tap	65.1	46.7
	—No Response	0	1.6
7	How many times do you wash your hands daily?—1–3 times	62.8	54.5
	—4–6 times	23.3	22.1
	—7+ times	12.8	21.7
	—No Response	1.2	1.6

). This illustrated that most children, particularly girls (99%), always or sometimes wash their hands after playing outside. Approximately 5% of boys state that they never wash their hands after playing outside. Perhaps more importantly, about 8% of girls and 5% of boys state that they do not wash their hands before starting a meal. Many also do not or only sometimes use soap whilst washing their hands before meals (18.5% boys; 14% girls). Many children say that their total handwashing per day (at school and home) is 1–3 times (55.4% boys; 63.5% girls). This lack of hygiene may be the reason why many children have been absent from school with health issues (57.3% boys; 62.8% girls) that are hygiene-related illnesses (

Table 2. Summary of key WASH status indicators (health) across schools.

S/N	Health Indicator	Girls’ School (%)	Boys’ School (%)
1	Absent from school due to health—Yes	62.8	56.1
	—No	37.2	41.8
	—No Response	0	2
2	Cause of ill-health—Fever	74.4	66.4
	—Worm infestation	3.5	4.1
	—Head/body infection	7	11.1
	—Others	9.3	11.1
	—No Response	5.8	7.4
3	Treatment method—Hospital/Clinic	74.4	78.3
	—Self-Medication	17.4	16
	—No treatment	2.3	2
	—No Response	5.8	3.7
4	Absent from school during menstruation—Yes	11.6	–
	—No	88.4	–
	—No Response	0	–
5	Absent due to lack of menstrual facility—Yes	10.5	–
	—No	87.2	–
	—No Response	2.3	–
6	Disposal of menses—Flush it	23.3	–
	—Burn it	67.4	–
	—Dump it	8.1	–
	—No Response	1.2	–

), and with many needing hospital/clinic support (81.3% boys; 79% girls). In terms of absences from school for menstruation, several girls (11.6%) claim to have missed school during their period, and more than half of those claim it is because there are no facilities to cater for their period. Most girls reveal that they choose to burn their used sanitary products (68.2%), whilst many say that they opt to flush their used sanitary products down the toilet (23.5%).

Some children state that there are drainage issues in removing waste from the toilet block. Approximately 19% of boys and 23% of girls say that there is not sufficient water supplied to the drains. To address this issue, contractors have been hired to clear and clean the drains. However, many students claim to have had to clean the drains themselves (51.5% boys; 45.8% girls), without training and without personal protective equipment. The necessity to clear the drains is reportedly needed on a weekly and sometimes daily basis. The children say that this process is often also used as an opportunity to spray chemicals in the drains to control the spread of mosquitoes.

3.4. Interview Participant Demographics

The interview participants were teachers and support staff at the boys’ school (n = 6 males; n = 3 females) and the girls’ school (n = 6 males; n = 4 females). All participants had worked at the schools for at least 3 years. Of the participants from the boy’s and girl’s schools, ~20% for both choose to live on-site.

3.5. Interview Responses

Participants were asked to comment on whether they felt water supplies and treatments at the schools operated effectively. A participant from the boy’s school said “Supply is sufficient but there is not enough trained staff to treat the water…there is no regular pattern to the treatment”, whilst another participant said “students fetch water from the well whenever they want to use it, and sometimes, some of them use it without cleaning because the well is too far from the teaching block”. A participant from the girl’s school stated, “even though water is extremely important, especially in a girl-dominated environment, our main concern is its availability, the usability can be considered afterwards”.

When participants were questioned about washroom facilities at the schools, one participant from the girl’s school said “There is a mentality of neglecting the dilapidated structures and building new ones, yet with no plan to perfectly address the inadequacies of the old ones. Politicians have made us have more ineffective WASH facilities over the years. If equipment and broken sanitary wares were replaced, and also the pipes properly connected to them, the students would be okay”; meanwhile, a participant from the boys school said “constructing new toilets, sinking of new boreholes and wells or channeling new drains would amount to a waste of limited resources, as the available toilets only need renovation, and the boreholes and the wells too, either needs servicing or covers that can protect the wells from contamination”. A consequence of the neglect is highlighted by the participant from the boy’s school who said “most students resort to defecating in the bushes around whenever the toilets are dirty. They jokingly call it Short-put, Solid-works or Away-match”.

When participants were asked for further comments on washroom facilities, one participant from the girl’s school said “handwashing facilities are scarce, and a few of those are without water taps”, whilst another participant said “some time ago, the arrangement was that students should come to school with their own soap and toiletries [because they are not supplied] …later the policy became ineffective. It probably didn’t help that errant students were sent to the toilet to wash themselves as a punishment” and another participant said “some of the schoolgirls experience their first menstruation at school. It is sometimes difficult for them, especially if there is no water and soap for cleaning, and this experience has made some of them to cautiously program themselves to be absent from school on subsequent menstrual days”. In response to that, participants were also asked to comment on the common causes recorded for student absence. One participant from the girl’s school replied, “just the common illnesses amongst school children, like Malaria, Typhoid, Diarrhea, Nauseating uneasiness, Stomach pains, etc.”.

The participants were also asked about potential improvements being made to the schools. One participant said “we have, in recent times, received donations of classroom blocks from politicians, from different interventions from the government and some well-to-do individuals, but little or nothing towards WASH was taken into consideration in all their donations”; another participant from the boy’s school said “there are no consultations…many of them, who are politicians, do as they feel so their names are boldly written on a block of buildings to help their political popularity”.

These statements confirm and support the evidence collected from the questionnaires completed by the children from both schools.

4. Development of a Sustainable Water Management Framework for Schools

Access to adequate WASH facilities is essential for promoting health, education, and overall well-being, particularly in school environments. The findings of this study highlight that there are significant shortcomings which hinder equitable access and sustainable management of water resources. These challenges support the urgent requirement for strategic interventions, which also align with the Targets of SDG#6 (

Table 3. Descriptions of the UN SDG#6 targets.

SDG#6 Targets	Target Description
T6.1	Achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all.
T6.2	Achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations.
T.6.3	Improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally.
T6.4	Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity;
T6.5	Implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate.
T6.6	Protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes.

).

Guided by those SDG#6 targets that are linked to the issues/shortfalls identified in the schools featured in this study (T6.1 to T6.4), a framework has been created that proposes both short-term actions (achievable in days/weeks) and long-term actions (achievable in months/years) to support schools in achieving sustainable and inclusive WASH outcomes. These are reported in

Table 4. The proposed sustainable water management framework for schools in Sub-Saharan Africa.

SDG#6 Targets Linked to This Study
Target 6.1: Achieve Universal and Equitable Access to Safe and Affordable Drinking Water for All
Evidence of Shortfalls or Failings in the Schools	Proposed Short-Term Actions (Days/Weeks)	Proposed Long-Term Actions (Months/Years)
Insufficient Infrastructure and Maintenance (e.g., Incessant exposure of water sources to contaminants as a result of well lid damage, or eroded well environment)	Repair and maintenance campaign.	Infrastructure development projects.
Inadequate funding and Resources	Temporary water supply solutions.	Regular maintenance schedule (e.g., monthly inspection and maintenance).
Lack of awareness and Education	Fundraising and donations (from school owners/administrators or associations like alumni or other charitable groups).	Resource allocation policies (integration with ministry of environment).
Gender Inequality and Accessibility Issues (lack of adequate provision of sanitary materials for female pupils)	Partnership with local organizations.	Curriculum integration (to create awareness amongst pupils).
	Water conservation workshops.	Community engagement programs (e.g., collaboration with non-governmental organizations).
	Awareness campaigns.	Inclusive infrastructure design.
	Inclusive water access solutions.	Gender equality policies.
	Gender-sensitive training.
Target 6.2: Achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations
Evidence of Shortfalls or Failings in the Schools	Proposed Short-term Actions (days/weeks)	Proposed Long-term Actions (months/years)
Insufficient Number of Toilets and urinals. (i.e., number of functional toilets to school community population)	Distribute menstrual hygiene kits.	Construct permanent sanitation facilities to meet the growing population.
Lack of Menstrual Hygiene Management	Provision of temporary toilet facilities, sited closer to the classrooms to ensure proximity and security.	Establish menstrual hygiene management programs and build washrooms for schoolgirls.
Inadequate Handwashing Facilities	Install basic handwashing stations, with adequate water supply.	Install durable and permanent handwashing stations with adequate water supply and soap.
Exclusion of Vulnerable Population	Identify vulnerable populations within the school and ensure they have access to all sanitation facilities.	Develop and enforce policies that ensure all students, including those with disabilities, have equal access to sanitation facilities.
Long distance between the classrooms and toilet blocks
Insufficient water points
Target 6.3: Improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally
Evidence of Shortfalls or Failings in the Schools	Proposed Short-term Actions (days/weeks)	Proposed Long-term Actions (months/years)
Insufficient Water Treatment Facilities, e.g., water filters for treatment or treatment plants in some cases.	Implement portable water purification systems.	Build a sustainable water treatment facility and design a proper maintenance schedule tailored to the school’s needs.
Inadequate Waste Management Systems	Draw a detailed SOP for water treatment.	Implement a robust waste management system that includes collection, sorting, and proper disposal of waste.
Lack of Recycling and Reuse programs	Establish a basic waste collection system with designated bins for different types of waste (organic, recyclable, non-recyclable).	Create a structured recycling program, including the installation of recycling bins and partnerships with recycling facilities.
Inadequate Infrastructure and Maintenance	Launch recycling awareness campaigns.	Invest in the construction and maintenance of durable water and sanitation infrastructure including toilets, handwashing stations, and waste management facilities (e.g., water storage tanks cleaning schedules).
Inadequate consultation of experts in the construction of water wells and/or borehole, e.g., installations in low lands or close to the ground making the water sources susceptible to infiltration.	Immediate infrastructure repairs.
	Launch a waste management awareness addressing the knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) of the school community.
Target 6.4: Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity
Evidence of Shortfalls or Failings in the Schools	Proposed Short-term Actions (days/weeks)	Proposed Long-term Actions (months/years)
Inefficient Water Use Practices	Install water-saving fixtures such as low-flow taps and toilets to reduce water wastage.	Develop sustainable water management plans, e.g., embracement of water saving facilities like urinals, and water saving water closets.
Leakage and Poor Infrastructure through damaged pipe network or insufficient storage.	Identify and repair leaks in the water supply system and infrastructure to prevent water loss.	Invest in modernizing and upgrading water supply and sanitation infrastructure to prevent leaks and ensure efficient water distribution.
Lack of Water Conservation Education	Initiate water conservation awareness campaigns.	Integrate water conservation into curriculum.
Absence of Water Monitoring Systems (e.g., flow meters)	Establish temporary water monitoring systems.	Install advanced water monitoring systems that provide real-time data on water usage, leaks, and efficiency, e.g., flow and water meters.
Inconsistent supply of electricity		Installation of power-saving plumbing appliances.

, with suggested actions against T6.1, T6.2, T6.3, and T6.4.

4.1. Validation of the Proposed Framework

After the research team created the framework, it was shared with a group of experts who are all experienced in the operational management and maintenance of schools. Their insights were invaluable for refining the proposed framework. The validation process aimed to assess the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed framework. As with similar studies [53,54] where validation was sought, the use of a small cohort of participants as the profile of the experts was deemed to be an overriding factor in the validation process. Most of the seven experts who shared their thoughts and opinions of this framework ranged from 6 to 10 years’ experience working in academic/educational settings. The participants were invited to review the framework and to make comments about its usefulness in assisting schools to engage with the WASH agenda.

All of the participants (100%) indicated that the framework identifies the critical WASH shortfalls in schools and that the framework can facilitate the implementation of the action plans to meet the WASH needs in schools. They all agreed that the framework is simple and clear to understand and would pose little or no practical challenges with respect to use. Having short-term and long-term actions would allow schools to adopt a targeted approach to WASH and enable them to become more strategic in their water resource management planning for schools. Most participants (86%) suggested that the framework should be frequently used (weekly 29%; monthly 57%) to aid the inspection and maintenance of school water facilities and to guarantee their safety and proper functionality. All participants (100%) stated their support for the framework to be used as a water safety and conservation tool in the school curriculum, as it would help raise water and sanitation awareness among schoolchildren. It should be noted that most participants (86%) said they would be willing to use the framework to actively participate in partnerships with local organizations to raise WASH awareness among local communities. These insights support the proposed need for the implementation of the framework, ensuring that it is contextually relevant and capable of addressing the unique challenges faced by schools in achieving WASH standards.

4.2. Prioritization Matrix for Implementing the Sustainable Water Management Framework in Schools (Sub-Saharan Africa)

This prioritization matrix (

Table 5. Prioritization matrix.

SDG 6 Target	Proposed Action	Impact (1–3)	Feasibility (1–3)	Priority (Impact × Feasibility)	Implementation Timeline
Target 6.1 (Safe water access)	Repair damaged well lids to prevent contamination	3	3	9	Short-term (days/weeks)
	Install handwashing stations with soap/water supply	3	2	6	Short-term (weeks)
	Curriculum integration (water safety awareness)	2	2	4	Medium-term (months)
	Infrastructure development (new wells/tanks)	3	1	3	Long-term (years)
Target 6.2 (Sanitation)	Construct gender-segregated toilets with menstrual hygiene management (MHM) facilities	3	2	6	Medium-term (months)
	Establish menstrual hygiene management programs	3	2	6	Medium-term (months)
	Repair/relocate toilets closer to classrooms	3	3	9	Short-term (weeks)
	Inclusive sanitation policies for disabled students	2	1	2	Long-term (years)
Target 6.3 (Water quality)	Install water treatment filters	3	2	6	Medium-term (months)
	Launch waste management/recycling programs	2	2	4	Medium-term (months)
	Repair leaking pipes/storage tanks	3	3	9	Short-term (weeks)
	Partner with NGOs for recycling bins	2	1	2	Long-term (years)
Target 6.4 (Efficiency)	Fix leaks in water supply systems	3	3	9	Short-term (weeks)
	Install water-saving devices (e.g., low-flow taps)	2	2	4	Medium-term (months)
	Water conservation awareness campaigns	2	3	6	Short-term (weeks)
	Modernize infrastructure (e.g., smart meters)	3	1	3	Long-term (years)

, Figure 5) evaluates the proposed actions based on impact (potential to address key water-related challenges) and feasibility (ease of implementation given resources, time, and stakeholder support). Each action is scored on a scale of 1 (low) to 3 (high).

Priority Categories:

• High Priority (Score 6–9): Quick wins with high impact (e.g., repairs, handwashing stations).
• Medium Priority (Score 4–5): Important but require planning/resources (e.g., MHM programs).
• Low Priority (Score 1–3): Long-term systemic changes (e.g., infrastructure projects).

Recommendations:

• Immediate Actions (Short-term):
  • Repair wells, toilets, and leaks;
  • Deploy handwashing stations;
  • Launch awareness campaigns.
• Medium-term:
  • Construct gender-sensitive toilets;
  • Install water treatment systems.
• Long-term:
  • Infrastructure upgrades (e.g., smart meters);
  • Policy integration with government ministries.

This matrix focuses on low-cost, high-impact solutions first to build momentum, then scale to systemic changes. This will help engage communities/NGOs for sustainability.

5. Discussion

The study reveals that the availability and access to a reliable and safe water supply at the schools is problematic. This is an issue that is widespread across schools in many low-income countries. As noted by Oloruntoba et al. [55], who also investigated schools in Sub-Saharan Africa, an absence of potable water is commonplace and most of the water supplies in their study were contaminated; thus, creating an enabling environment for waterborne and water-related diseases. Meanwhile, Freeman and Clasen [56] demonstrate the positive impact of available water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions on reducing school absenteeism and improving the educational performance of schoolchildren.

Dilapidated and unhygienic toilet (and urinal) facilities, plus a lack of toilet paper, are issues highlighted by the findings of this study, this is noted as contributing to some schoolchildren opting to openly urinate and defecate. Other studies have shown that the condition of toilet and urinal facilities in schools significantly impacts the sanitation practices and overall well-being of students. A study by Azage et al. [57] conducted in Ethiopia found that the absence of functional toilets in schools led to an increased prevalence of diarrheal diseases among schoolchildren, highlighting the negative health impact of inadequate sanitation facilities. Dilapidated and poorly maintained facilities discourage proper hygiene practices and contribute to unsanitary conditions, leading to potential health risks.

Existing WASH facilities in schools are contributing to some schoolchildren opting for open defecation and urination. The lack of proper sanitation facilities has been identified as a significant barrier to improved sanitation practices. A study by Sahoo et al. [58] revealed that inadequate access to clean and functional toilets in schools contributed to open defecation, especially among girls, due to feelings of embarrassment, discomfort, and lack of privacy. Improving toilet and urinal facilities in schools is crucial for promoting proper hygiene practices and reducing open defecation. A study by Garn et al. [59] emphasized the importance of safe, clean, and gender-sensitive sanitation facilities in schools, emphasizing that improved facilities are more likely to be used by students, thus reducing the prevalence of open defecation and its associated risks. This issue not only affects hygiene practices but also poses health risks. Addressing this problem requires investment in improving sanitation infrastructure, and ensuring privacy, hygiene, and gender sensitivity. By providing adequate and functional facilities, schools can promote proper sanitation practices and create a healthy and dignified learning environment for students.

A study conducted by Cronk et al. [60] examined the state of school sanitation facilities in low-income countries and found that a significant number of schools had inadequate toilets and urinals, with broken or missing doors, lack of privacy, and unsanitary conditions. This situation not only compromises the dignity and privacy of students but also increases the likelihood of open defecation and urination. Privacy and security are important in ensuring schoolchildren make use of the toilet. Ramster [61] also suggested that the toilet cubicle must provide physical privacy for the user, and that discretion is often included through careful location of the facilities, and that the public toilet should provide the occasion for mental privacy, or solitude, so that women are provided with more than just a public health facility.

The study also demonstrates that dilapidated sinks and taps, plus a lack of consumable soap resources, means that schoolchildren are being exposed to unnecessary health risks, which is then evidenced by reported illnesses and reduced school attendance. A study by Onda et al. [62] found that this is a problem for many developing countries, with 24% of schools lacking basic water services and 32% lacking basic sanitation facilities, severely impacting hygiene practices and overall well-being of students. Similarly, UNESCO [63] highlighted the critical role of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) facilities in schools, emphasizing their contribution to improved health, increased attendance, and better learning outcomes. In line with some research [41,64,65], there are some other supporting water and hygiene-related interventions to reduce the transmission of diseases and infections. These interventions include provision of toileting consumables (such as soaps, tissue paper, sanitary towels, and waste bins) and adherence to appropriate hand washing techniques. Hand washing with soap is one of the most effective and cheapest means of limiting the spread of disease and infections, as suggested by Talaat et al. [66] in Egypt, where a 30% reduction in schoolchildren absences from illness was found following an intensive handwashing campaign.

The findings in this study suggest poor school attendance for girls is exacerbated because the toileting facilities and consumable resources are unsupportive of the needs of someone who is menstruating. According to UNICEF [20] and Kuranchie [67], about 1 in 10 school-age girls in Africa do not attend school during menstruation or they choose to drop-out at puberty because of the lack of sanitary pads and inadequate privacy in schools. This is an issue that has been explored extensively with schoolgirls across many African countries (e.g., Ghana [68]; Kenya [30,34]; Tanzania [69]; Uganda [70], amongst others). It is also an issue that extends across many low-income nations (e.g., Bangladesh [71]; Indonesia [72]; Nepal [73]). A study in Pakistan [74] revealed that more than half of girls miss school each month during their menstrual period.

Menstruation-related challenges are a major cause for educational absenteeism and academic performance amongst adolescent girls [75]. The World Bank [76] highlights several factors that impact experiences with menstruation, including inadequate facilities and resources, menstrual pain, fear of disclosure, and inadequate knowledge about the menstrual cycle. There is a desperate need to improve sanitary facilities in educational settings across low-income nations. To address this, Rehan et al. [75] propose that policies should be mandated for sanitary pads and painkillers to be made available to schoolgirls and that hygienic female toilet facilities be created and maintained in all schools.

This study has highlighted that the attitudes and behaviors of schoolchildren towards their own personal hygiene are an issue that requires attention. This concern was previously noted by Sibiya and Gumbo [77], who investigated the knowledge attitude and practices of schoolchildren in South Africa. They revealed that most children have no knowledge of water-based diseases and their prevention. Furthermore, despite the schoolchildren claiming to know about safe hygiene practices, observations from their numerous site visits indicated a lack of hygiene practices being implemented. A study by Vishnupriya et al. [78], in India, specifically focused on the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of secondary school children, suggests that, despite many of them reporting episodes of diarrhea, most of the participants had the appropriate WASH knowledge. As a result of these findings, Vishnupriya et al. [78] proposed multifaceted interventions to facilitate adequate water and sanitation hygiene practices. Mbakaya and Lee [79] suggested that the poor hand hygiene practices could be mitigated by school nurses through the promotion of hand hygiene to minimize the transmission of diseases

Improving the usability and cleanliness of toilets across both the schools has been highlighted as requiring action by school management and/or authority interventions. Sibiya and Gumbo [77] suggested that the lack of maintenance of sanitary facilities indicates that authorities are choosing to ignore the importance of clean, functioning toilets. In their South African study, most school authorities felt that they should force learners to clean their own toilet because there was no one employed to deal with the matter [77], an approach that schoolchildren do not voluntarily perform and schools do not enforce.

Operating and maintaining usable WASH services is essential for the safety of the schoolchildren [80,81]. The role of government in sustaining and maintaining adequate facilities cannot be overemphasized. Political intervention, however, can play a vital role because policymakers can prioritize support towards WASH infrastructure programs. This was emphasized by McMichael [65], who highlighted the importance of political will in driving WASH improvements in schools. McMichael [65] emphasized that successful interventions require strong government leadership, effective policies, and adequate funding mechanisms to address the challenges of inadequate WASH facilities. This is important because political intervention can facilitate the allocation of resources for infrastructure development and maintenance. Appiah-Effah et al. [82] revealed that political commitment and financial support from the government was instrumental in enhancing school infrastructure, including the water and sanitation facilities, leading to positive impacts on student health and well-being.

The creation of the Sustainable Water Management Framework, which has received overwhelming affirmation and endorsement through its validation, provides an original and worthwhile opportunity for schools. The framework is not only applicable to Nigeria, but across Sub-Saharan Africa, to make a meaningful stride forward in ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for schoolchildren. The framework promotes safe management of drinking water, endorses safe management of sanitation, and upholds basic hygiene so that schoolchildren can be treated with dignity and respect and be provided with a setting where they want to attend and reach their educational potential. It would be naïve, however, to think that this will be achieved without financial support or political input.

Political and financial intervention can drive partnerships and collaborations between different stakeholders. Bakare et al. [83] revealed that political commitment facilitated partnerships between government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and community members, resulting in effective and sustainable WASH interventions. However, in this study, the lack of consultation on school building improvements means opportunities for political focus are being misplaced. Rather than improving the existing WASH facilities and services, political investors are opting to create new high profile school buildings. But the health of future generations and their potential academic achievements should be considered more valuable to society.

6. Conclusions

The purpose of this study was to gather insights into the WASH status within secondary schools, using case studies from Ibadan, in Nigeria, and to develop a sustainable water management framework that can proffer guidance and actions to improve WASH in schools across SSA. This study has revealed a deficiency of WASH standards within both the case study schools; this exposes school children to health and education risks. The framework will assist schools in managing the WASH issues through a range of short- and long-term actions.

The limitation of this study are that the case study focused on only two schools and the framework validation was based solely on expert feedback; broader pilot testing in diverse real-world contexts is recommended. Specifically, the implementation of the framework across multiple urban and rural schools would provide more comprehensive insights and data to assess the need for more widespread adoption.

Despite global attention on the SDGs, and notably those linked to this study (SDG#3: to improve health and well-being; SDG#4: to enjoy quality education; and SDG#6: clean water and sanitation), the availability and access to a reliable and safe water supply in SSA schools remains a challenge. Inadequate WASH infrastructure, poor water quality, limited accessibility, and insufficient financing and management are hindering efforts to provide a conducive learning environment. This issue is most pressing amongst schoolgirls who are opting to be absent from school each month when menstruating. To address these challenges requires combined group actions from governments, educational institutions, and international organizations to provide investment in WASH infrastructure, in conjunction with water quality monitoring and treatment, and sustainable management systems. Clean water is a basic human need and is vital to enhancing educational outcomes and building healthier communities.

To improve WASH facilities in schools, particularly in developing countries, political intervention will be required. Strong political will, effective policies, adequate resource allocation, and partnerships with stakeholders are essential components of successful interventions. Governments and policymakers across SSA need to prioritize WASH in schools by allocating sufficient funds and creating an enabling environment for implementation and sustainability of WASH initiatives. Educational boards, ministries, departments and agencies of education need to consider the how they monitor the quality of education received by students, along with the amount and standard of the facilities available within the schools which need to adjust to an increasing student population. To align with the intentions of the SDGs, the current curriculum needs to be updated, to accommodate the basics of WASH management that can go beyond the schools’ walls into the community and society at large. Something as simple as a WASH club, just as schools have literary and debating societies, could be the mechanism to improve the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of WASH amongst cohorts of schoolchildren and to positively impact society as well.