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Review

Marburg Virus Disease in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Currently Available Comprehensive Genomic Data up to 2024

by
Edson Kinimi
Department of Veterinary Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3017, Morogoro 67125, Tanzania
Zoonotic Dis. 2025, 5(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/zoonoticdis5010006
Submission received: 13 November 2024 / Revised: 18 February 2025 / Accepted: 21 February 2025 / Published: 7 March 2025
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Simple Summary

Marburg virus (MARV) is a deadly zoonotic pathogen of humans, with very few survivors or no. Since its first recorded outbreak in three European cities in 1967, MARV has led to several human outbreaks across Sub-Saharan Africa, including recent cases in Tanzania in 2025 and 2023, Rwanda in 2024, and Equatorial Guinea in 2023. These outbreaks are mainly linked to human interactions with Egyptian fruit bats, the natural reservoir of MARV. In the past 20 years, over 70 complete MARV genomes have been sequenced, enhancing our understanding of its genetic evolution and spread. However, viral genomic data derived from bat populations, remain limited. This review consolidates full genomic data on the ecology of MARV in Sub-Saharan Africa to support epidemiologically informed control strategies and advocates for identifying MARV hotspots and defining episystem-delimiting areas with extensive local co-circulation of MARV in the region.

Abstract

Marburg virus (MARV) is one of the deadliest human zoonotic pathogens, historically traced back to Uganda, in East African-cave-dwelling Egyptian fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus), the probable cradle of MARV. Since its first identification in Germany and Serbia in 1967 due to laboratory contamination, MARV has caused 18 outbreaks in humans in Sub-Saharan Africa, with the latest in Tanzania in 2025 and 2023, Rwanda in 2024, and Equatorial Guinea in 2023. Efforts to control MARV through bat extermination in Sub-Saharan Africa have been ineffective, likely due to incomplete extermination and the recolonization of infected juvenile fruit bats. Over the past two decades, extensive molecular epidemiological research has generated over 70 complete MARV genomes, enabling detailed phylogenetic analysis, though bat-derived sequences are still rare. Phylogenetic analysis of Sub-Saharan African Marburgviruses from 1975 shows clustering with sequences from humans and bats, indicating that the virus reservoir species in these regions are not considerably distinct. This review aims to consolidate MARV comprehensive genomic data to provide a clearer picture of the current Marburg virus disease situation in Sub-Saharan Africa and, in turn, highlights the need for active genomic surveillance to identify hotspots and prevent future global outbreaks.

1. Introduction

Marburg virus (MARV) is a highly lethal zoonotic pathogen affecting humans and non-human primates, which is closely related to the Ebola virus [1,2,3]. The disease, Marburg virus disease (MVD), was first identified in 1967 during outbreaks in Germany and Serbia linked to laboratory contamination from African green monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) imported from Uganda, in East Africa [4,5]. Since then, 18 MVD outbreaks have been recorded in Sub-Saharan Africa, with the most recent in Tanzania in 2025 and 2023, Rwanda in 2024, and Equatorial Guinea in 2023 [6,7,8]. These outbreaks are primarily associated with human interactions with Egyptian fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus), which serve as the natural reservoir for MARV [9,10,11,12,13]. The efforts to control the virus by killing the bats have been ineffective, likely due to the incomplete extermination and subsequent recolonization by infected juvenile fruit bats [14,15]. Shifting public perception to prioritize the protection of bats rather than their destruction could enhance both human health and environmental conservation, as bats play a crucial role in forest regeneration, pollination, and pest control [16].
MARV belongs to the family Filoviridae, genus Orthomarburgvirus, and species Orthomarburgvirus marburgense [1]. The MARV genome, approximately 19 kb in length, encodes several proteins, such as Nucleoprotein (NP), Viral Protein 35 (VP35), Viral Protein 40 (VP40), Glycoprotein (GP), Viral Protein 30 (VP30), VP24, and the Large Protein (L), all organized as single-stranded negative-sense RNA [17,18]. The first complete genome sequence of MARV was generated by Feldmann et al. in 1992 when they cloned the cDNA of the Musoke variant from the 1980 outbreak in Kenya [18]. The sequencing of MARV has facilitated the development of important serologic and molecular diagnostic tools [19,20]. Research has identified GP and VP40 proteins as the most promising candidates for vaccine development due to their strong antigenic properties [21,22,23].
The Orthomarburgvirus marburgense species has been classified into two genetically distinct viruses, MARV and Ravn virus (RAVV), with approximately 22% genetic divergence at the nucleotide level [1,20,24]. The first MARV identified in Europe, known as the Popp (1967), is part of the East Africa Marburgviruses complex (Figure 1). This complex also includes MARV Musoke, Angola variants, Ci67, Ozolin, Ratayczak, and Voege, which are MARV variants with relatively few genomic differences [20,25]. RAVV was first identified in 1987 from a single case in southeastern Kenya. However, it has also been linked to significant outbreaks of Marburg hemorrhagic fever, circulating alongside other MARV variants in the Democratic Republic of the Congo during 1998–2000 and in the 2007 outbreak in Uganda [26,27,28,29]. This indicates a broader distribution of MARV and RAVV in Sub-Saharan Africa and suggests local co-circulation of multiple genetic variants.
Sub-Saharan Africa comprises 48 countries experiencing rapid urban growth and frequent epidemic disease outbreaks [30,31,32]. The recent emergence of MARV in new regions such as Guinea, Ghana, Equatorial Guinea, Tanzania, and Rwanda poses significant public health threats, especially in the absence of MVD vaccine [6,7,8,33,34]. The World Health Organization (WHO) classifies MARV as a pathogen of extreme global importance and a Risk Group 4 pathogen requiring Biosafety Level 4 (BSL4) containment, which is available only in Gabon and South Africa [35]. There are currently no licensed vaccines or treatments for MVD, hindered by inadequate infrastructure and the challenges of conducting clinical trials due to the severity, rarity, and rural context of outbreaks [3]. Molecular epidemiology is essential for tracking the MARV movement and supports WHO recommendations for countries to implement robust monitoring plans, helping to save lives and prevent large-scale crises.
The sequencing platforms used for Marburg virus isolates from Sub-Saharan Africa have evolved significantly over the years, enabling researchers to better understand the virus’s genetic diversity and epidemiology (Table 1). Therefore, this study aims to provide updated molecular epidemiological data on each Sub-Saharan African country from which data are currently available (up to 2024). For convenience, the data are also summarized in (Figure 1).

2. Search Strategy and Selection of Research Articles

The MEDLINE and Google Scholar search tools were used as sources of the peer-reviewed research articles included in this review. The articles were selected using keywords combined by Boolean operators genotyping of Marburg virus OR Marburg virus disease diagnosis OR Marburg virus detection OR MARV OR Molecular diagnosis of MAVD OR Molecular diagnostic tests for MAVD*AND (MARV sequencing). The collected research articles were imported from Zotero and Mendeley reference management software into Rayyan to facilitate the screening of the research articles based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. All searches for MARV genomic detection and sequencing were performed in one year from January 2023 to November 2024. Only 54 articles out of 1839, written in English, from the first description of MARV and sequencing of MARV met the inclusion criteria.

3. Marburg Virus Disease Epidemics and Associated Genomic Data in Sub-Saharan Africa

3.1. South Africa

The first recognized outbreak of MVD in Africa occurred in the Republic of South Africa in February 1975 [37]. The primary case involved a 20-year-old Australian draughtsman who had been hitchhiking through Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia) and exploring bat-inhabited caves. He died seven days after being admitted to Johannesburg Hospital in South Africa. Two secondary cases followed: one involved his 19-year-old travelling companion, and the other a 20-year-old nurse. The latter two patients received vigorous supportive treatment and prophylactic heparin, recovering after an acute phase lasting about seven days. Virus studies were conducted at the Poliomyelitis Research Foundation in Johannesburg and the Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta, Georgia. Following this, a highly specialized maximum containment Biosafety Level four laboratory (BSL-4) was constructed from 1976 to 1979 for handling MARV and other extremely hazardous haemorrhagic fever pathogens in Africa. This facility supports research and biosurveillance on BSL4 agents. In 2013–2014, a biosurveillance program tested Egyptian fruit bats in Matlapitsi Cave for MARV infection and discovered RNA closely resembling the 1975 Ozolin (GenBank accession no. MG725616) [12,39] (Figure 2). In 2017, MARV RNA was also detected in rectal swabs from Egyptian fruit bats at the same location [39]. This suggests that faecal contamination of bat habitats could be a potential source of human infection. The identified genetic sequences (GenBank accession no. MT321489) were closely related to RAVV (GenBank accession no. NC_024781), indicating a wider distribution of MARV in Sub-Saharan Africa and suggesting the local co-circulation of multiple genetic variants (Figure 2).

3.2. Kenya

The second outbreak of MVD in Africa was reported in Kenya in 1980, followed by another outbreak in 1987 [28,40]. In both cases, the index patient had visited Kitum Cave in Mt. Elgon National Park, home to Egyptian fruit bats, the known reservoirs of MARV [11]. The first case involved a 56-year-old French electrical engineer working in a sugar factory in Nzoia, who fell ill on 8 January 1980, with a sudden fever. He died just six hours after being admitted to a Nairobi hospital on 15 January 1980. A doctor who had close contact with him subsequently contracted the virus but recovered. Seven years later, the 1987 outbreak involved a 15-year-old Danish boy who was hospitalized with a three-day history of headache, malaise, fever, and vomiting. Despite receiving specialized supportive therapy, he died on the eleventh day of illness, with no additional cases reported. The virus from these outbreaks was later sequenced with the 1980 Musoke (GenBank accession number: NC_001608) and the 1987 Ravn (GenBank accession number: NC_024781) [17,20]. Comparisons with the reference Popp variant (1967, Germany isolate) revealed nucleotide identities of 72.3% between Ravn and Musoke, 71% between Ravn and Popp, and 91.7% between Musoke and Popp. In 2007, an ecological investigation identified MARV in an Egyptian fruit bat from Kitum Cave, a site long suspected to be the source of MARV/RAVV in Kenya. Phylogenetic analysis revealed the virus (KE261, GQ499199) was genetically distant from previous Kenyan isolates (Musoke and RAVV) [11].

3.3. Democratic Republic of the Congo

The second largest recorded outbreak of MVD occurred from October 1998 to September 2000 in Durba, DRC (Table 2), infecting 154 individuals with a case fatality rate of approximately 83% [41]. Most of those affected were directly or indirectly involved in gold mining activities. This outbreak was notable for its duration of nearly two years, during which multiple distinct genetic lineages of the virus were identified (GenBank accession nos. DQ466108-DQ466195 and DQ447652), suggesting several independent introductions of the virus into the human population from an unknown natural reservoir [26]. Ecological investigations in the DRC in May and October 1999 revealed that MARV RNA was detected in the tissues of 3.1% of Egyptian fruit bats [36]. Additionally, MARV RNA was found in insectivorous bats, with 3.0% of Miniopterus inflatus and 3.6% of Rhinolophus elocuens testing positive [36]. Sequence analysis of VP35 gene fragments from bat specimens (GenBank EU11794–EU118805) identified matches with human isolates, a closely related 1975 Ozolin isolate, and novel variants [26].

3.4. Angola

In October 2004, the first largest outbreak of MVD on record began in Uige province, Angola, and continued until July 2005, resulting in 252 reported cases and 227 deaths, which corresponds to a fatality rate of 90% [20,42,43]. In March 2005, a joint investigative mission confirmed the presence of MARV in Angola (Table 1). Complete genome sequencing (GenBank nos. DQ447653; DQ447654; DQ447655; DQ447656; DQ447657; DQ447658; DQ447659; and DQ447660) revealed that the causative MARV had only a 6.8% nucleotide difference from the main group of East African Marburgviruses (Figure 2). This suggests that the bat reservoir species in these regions are not significantly distinct and that the virus spreads primarily through person-to-person transmission, with minimal mutation accumulation [20].

3.5. Uganda

Since 1967, several outbreaks of MVD have been reported in or linked to Uganda [4,24,25,44]. The first recorded outbreak in Uganda occurred in 2007, resulting in three cases and one death [29]. A 2012 outbreak recorded 26 confirmed and probable cases, including 15 fatalities [15]. The outbreak started in Ibanda district and spread to Mbarara, Kabale, Kamwenge, and Kampala. A third outbreak in 2014 involved one case in Kampala [45]. Additionally, MVD outbreaks in Germany and Serbia (1967), the Netherlands (2007), the United States (2008), and Russia have been linked to Uganda [5,46,47]. Egyptian fruit bats, particularly those from Kitaka mine and Python Cave in Western Uganda, have been identified as reservoirs for MARV [9,13,14]. Bats from these locations are associated with four MVD outbreaks [15,29]. However, infected Egyptian fruit bats do not exhibit clinical symptoms or mortality due to MARV [48]. Phylogenetic analysis of Ugandan MARV from 2017 (Accession nos. MBG201708608 and MBG201708609) shows clustering with sequences from humans and bats between 2007–2009 and 2014 (Accession no. KP985768), indicating two distinct viruses, including MARV and RAVV, different from those collected during the 2012 Kabale outbreak (Accession nos. KC545387 and KC545388) (Figure 3).

3.6. Guinea

On 25 July 2021, a patient in Temessadou M’bokét village, Guéckédou prefecture, Guinea, began exhibiting symptoms of MVD and subsequently passed away on 2 August 2021 [34]. A collaborative diagnosis of MARV was conducted using real-time reverse transcriptase PCR and sequencing on a post-mortem buccal swab sample at the National Reference Laboratory in Conakry, Guinea, and the Institut Pasteur de Dakar in Senegal (Table 1). Metagenomic next-generation sequencing achieved a 99.3% recovery of the complete MARV genome, and phylogenetic analysis indicated that the new Guinea MARV variant (GenBank Accession nos. OK665848 and OL702894) clusters with MARV variants isolated from bats in Sierra Leone and humans in Angola (Figure 2). Following the outbreak, close monitoring of all contacts over a 21-day period showed that none developed symptoms, and no additional cases were reported. To trace the likely source of the MAVD outbreak in Guinea, an ecological survey conducted in June 2022 identified three MARV-positive Egyptian fruit bats inhabiting caves. Sanger sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of partial sequences revealed that the MARV found in these bats (GenBank accession numbers: OP729425 and OP716850-OP716853) belongs to the Angola-like lineage but is not identical to the isolate obtained during the 2021 outbreak in Guinea [49].

3.7. Ghana

In June 2022, a 26-year-old Ghanaian man tested positive for MARV via RT-PCR [33]. After three weeks of monitoring, one of the contacts died (Table 2). The sequencing of Ghanaian MARV isolates at the Institut Pasteur de Dakar in Senegal (GenBank accession numbers OQ672470 and OQ672471) showed 98.4% and 99.7% similarity, respectively, to the 2021 Guinea MARV sequence (Figure 2). This suggests possible spillover events from a widespread natural reservoir, such as Egyptian fruit bats, or undetected human-to-human transmission [10].

3.8. Equatorial Guinea

In mid-February 2023, Equatorial Guinea reported its first outbreak of MVD following preliminary testing of samples from its eastern region [7]. A total of 17 confirmed cases and 23 probable cases were reported across five districts in four provinces. Of the 17 confirmed cases, 12 resulted in death, while all of the probable cases were fatal (https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2023-DON472, accessed on 18 February 2025). Molecular testing was conducted at the Institut Pasteur de Dakar in Senegal, which serves as the regional WHO reference centre for arboviruses and haemorrhagic fever viruses (Table 1). Molecular analysis showed that the MARV isolates in Equatorial Guinea in 2023 are closely related to those from Egyptian fruit bats in Sierra Leone, with 98.45% and 97.41% nucleotide identity to isolates from 2017 (GenBank: MN258361.1) and 2018 (GenBank: MN187403.1), respectively. Previous reports from Guinea and Ghana suggest MARV can spread over long distances through bat migration, maintaining an enzootic cycle before spilling over to humans [33,34].

3.9. Tanzania

In March 2023, the first outbreak of MVD was reported in the Kagera region, followed by a second outbreak in January 2025 in the same area [6]. The origin of MARV in both instances remains undetermined, underscoring the necessity for phylogeographical investigations and further research to elucidate its source. It is suspected that the virus may have originated from large colonies of Egyptian fruit bats in the Kagera region or through a spillover event from neighbouring countries, including Uganda, where MVD has been repeatedly reported in both humans and bats. However, the absence of MARV sequence data from the Tanzanian outbreak is indeed noteworthy, especially when compared to the more recent outbreak in Rwanda, for which genomic data have already been published. This highlights the need for public education on the importance of sequencing data, which are essential for understanding transmission dynamics and genetic variations of the pathogen, as well as informing control strategies. Therefore, monitoring any forthcoming data or reports from Tanzania will be critical for further insights.

3.10. Rwanda

On 27 September 2024, Rwanda reported its first-ever outbreak of MVD [50]. As of 28 October 2024, there have been 66 cases and 15 deaths, with an increasing number of infected healthcare workers (Table 2). The index case was linked to a mining cave with Egyptian fruit bats, and serology confirmed three bats seropositive, supporting zoonotic origin and spillover to the human population [8]. Phylogenetic analysis of Rwandan MARV isolates (accession numbers PQ552725-PQ552742) revealed a high percentage genetic identity (99.3–99.6%) with a 2014 Ugandan case in Kampala (KP985768), suggesting a shared bat ancestor [8]. The Rwandan MARV isolates form part of a clade including bat samples from southwestern Uganda (2007 onward) and two Ugandan human cases from 2017 (Figure 3). Its closest match, a bat virus (accession number: JX458855), was detected in 2009 in a juvenile Egyptian fruit bat from Python Cave in Queen Elizabeth National Park in western Uganda. Limited genetic variation among Rwandan MARV isolates indicates a single zoonotic event with minimal human-to-human spread. To prevent the spread of MVD, public education and the use of protective equipment are essential for reducing transmission and hospital-acquired infections. Identifying the origin of the MARV outbreak in Rwanda and implementing virological surveillance are crucial for curbing its spread and preventing future global outbreaks.

4. Detection of Marburg Virus in Bats with No Reported Human Outbreak of Marburg Virus Disease

4.1. Gabon

From 2003 to 2008, MARV and anti-MARV IgG antibodies were detected in Egyptian fruit bats in Gabon despite no reported human outbreaks of MVD during that period [51]. Phylogenetic analysis of MARV sequences (EU068108-13) from these bats, specifically in the NP and VP 35 genes, revealed about 5% nucleotide divergence compared to the Angolan lineage of MARV. This divergence is notably less than the 15% diversity seen among East African MARV isolates [52]. These findings suggest the presence of a geographic cluster that includes both Angolan human MARV isolates and Gabonese bat variants. A more extensive study conducted in northern Gabon screened 1257 bats captured in July 2009, December 2009, and June 2010 from three caves [38]. The detection of MARV-positive bats in Gabon from 2005 to 2011 suggests the virus is now enzootic, emphasizing the need for continued monitoring of bats and human–bat interactions.

4.2. Zambia

From 2014 to 2017, a serological study in Zambia found a high seroprevalence of MARV (43.8%) in the Egyptian fruit bat population [53]. Peaks in seroprevalence were consistently observed from November to December each year, indicating a seasonal pattern of infection. In September 2018, MARV was detected in Egyptian fruit bats (GenBank accession nos. LC465155–7 and LC465158) [54]. The virus was phylogenetically similar to isolates responsible for MVD outbreaks in humans in the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1998 to 2000.

4.3. Sierra Leone

Ecological studies conducted between 2017 and 2018 identified the presence of MARV circulating in populations of Egyptian fruit bats in Sierra Leone [10]. Phylogenetic analysis of MARV sequences derived from these bats (GenBank accession numbers: MN193419-MN193431, MN187403-MN187406, MN258361-MN258362) revealed that these isolates are phylogenetically closely related to previously identified MARV variants found in bat populations from Gabon and the DRC between 2006 and 2009. Furthermore, the viral sequences exhibited notable similarities to those associated with human outbreaks in Angola in 2005 (Figure 3). This discovery represents the first detection of Angola-like MARV variants in Egyptian fruit bats, extending the known geographical range of these virus variants and providing new insights into the ecology of MARV in African bat populations.

5. Conclusions

The escalating incidence of MVD outbreaks in humans across Sub-Saharan Africa highlights the urgent need for early detection and the implementation of control measures at the source, specifically targeting the primary reservoir host, Egyptian fruit bats. Phylogenomic analyses reveal a close genetic relationship between bat-derived MARV variants and those previously isolated from both bats and humans in earlier outbreaks, emphasizing the significant role of Egyptian fruit bats as potential reservoirs for the virus in Sub-Saharan Africa. The paucity of bat-derived genomic data and withheld data seriously hinder our capacity to understand Marburgviruses’ evolutionary and transmission dynamics to support epidemiologically informed control strategies. Thus, long-term research collaborations in Sub-Saharan Africa will make it possible to collect many bat samples from multiple countries in the region to identify the hotspots of MARV and define episystem-delimitating areas with extensive MARV circulation. The rising frequency of MVD outbreaks underscores the urgent need to establish robust molecular detection and sequencing capabilities in the region. These genomic infrastructures would facilitate the timely implementation of control measures to mitigate the impact of future outbreaks. Marburgviruses genomic data were primarily generated using Sanger standard methods but now are currently being generated by Illumina and nanopore next-generation sequencing technologies. Next-generation sequencing provides higher throughput, faster, and more cost-effective sequencing.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated are publicly available (accession numbers) and can be accessed by the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express sincere gratitude to the SACIDS Foundation for One Health for providing training on infectious diseases, including Marburg virus disease detection and control, at the National Institute for Communicable Diseases (NICD) in South Africa. This training laid the foundation for this review. Special thanks go to Mark Rweyemamu and Gerald Misinzo for their support during the NICD training, as well as to the trainers, Jacqueline Weyer, Petrus Jansen van Vuren, and Janusz T. Paweska. Paweska’s presentation on the Ecology of the Marburg virus in June 2023 at NICD was particularly inspiring and motivated the completion of this work. Thanks, also go to Népomuscène Hakizimana for his assistance in drawing the map. Finally, the author is grateful to Lee Joo-Yeon, Lee Jeong-Su, and Lim Hee-Young from the Korea National Institute of Health for funding the Marburg virus disease surveillance project in the Kagera River Basin ecosystem, which the author is actively involved in.

Conflicts of Interest

The author reports no potential conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Distribution of Egyptian fruit bats in Africa (deep green shading); the red dots show locations of known Marburg virus disease (MVD) outbreaks in the human population, and the yellow dots indicate Egyptian fruit bats that previously tested positive for MARV/RAVV. The Lake Victoria/East African Marburgviruses complex is associated with cave-dwelling Egyptian fruit bats in East Africa, the probable cradle of MARV (delineated by arrows) [24,25]. The global distribution of Egyptian fruit bats and MVD outbreaks was adapted from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (https://www.iucnredlist.org) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (https://www.cdc.gov/index.html), respectively, accessed on 2 January 2024.
Figure 1. Distribution of Egyptian fruit bats in Africa (deep green shading); the red dots show locations of known Marburg virus disease (MVD) outbreaks in the human population, and the yellow dots indicate Egyptian fruit bats that previously tested positive for MARV/RAVV. The Lake Victoria/East African Marburgviruses complex is associated with cave-dwelling Egyptian fruit bats in East Africa, the probable cradle of MARV (delineated by arrows) [24,25]. The global distribution of Egyptian fruit bats and MVD outbreaks was adapted from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (https://www.iucnredlist.org) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (https://www.cdc.gov/index.html), respectively, accessed on 2 January 2024.
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Figure 2. Maximum likelihood phylogeny of the complete MARV genome in Sub-Saharan Africa. Tips were annotated by country of isolation and sequence accession number. Phylogenetic analyses of the complete genome of Marburgviruses show a cluster that the Marburgviruses currently circulating in Sub-Saharan Africa are closely related to and, in the absence of further material, likely originated from Uganda. The most recent and probable location of the Marburgviruses ancestor was Uganda (KU059750), whereas that of the RAVV ancestor was Kenya (KUI79482).
Figure 2. Maximum likelihood phylogeny of the complete MARV genome in Sub-Saharan Africa. Tips were annotated by country of isolation and sequence accession number. Phylogenetic analyses of the complete genome of Marburgviruses show a cluster that the Marburgviruses currently circulating in Sub-Saharan Africa are closely related to and, in the absence of further material, likely originated from Uganda. The most recent and probable location of the Marburgviruses ancestor was Uganda (KU059750), whereas that of the RAVV ancestor was Kenya (KUI79482).
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Figure 3. Maximum likelihood phylogeny of the complete and near complete genomes of the Marburgviruses, in relationship to the recent outbreak in Rwanda. Phylogenetic analyses of the Marburgviruses show a cluster that the Marburgviruses currently circulating in Sub-Saharan Africa are closely related to and, in the absence of intermediates, likely had zoonotic transmission from Egyptian fruit bats (indicated by red circles and black squares). Tips were annotated by country of isolation and sequence accession number.
Figure 3. Maximum likelihood phylogeny of the complete and near complete genomes of the Marburgviruses, in relationship to the recent outbreak in Rwanda. Phylogenetic analyses of the Marburgviruses show a cluster that the Marburgviruses currently circulating in Sub-Saharan Africa are closely related to and, in the absence of intermediates, likely had zoonotic transmission from Egyptian fruit bats (indicated by red circles and black squares). Tips were annotated by country of isolation and sequence accession number.
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Table 1. Sequencing platforms that have been used for MARV isolates in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Table 1. Sequencing platforms that have been used for MARV isolates in Sub-Saharan Africa.
InstituteCountryPlatformReference
National Institute for Communicable DiseasesSouth AfricaThree Illumina Nextseq 2000 sequencers, one Nextseq 1000 sequencer, and a Pacbio Sequel[36]
Institut Pasteur de DakarSenegalIllumina NovaSeq 6000 sequencer; Nanopore MinION[34]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) field lab and CDC, Atlanta, GAUSAABI BigDye 3.1 dye chemistry and ABI 3730XL automated DNA sequencers; Ion Torrent; Illumina; and 454[20,37]
Franceville Centre International de Recherches Médicales de FrancevilleGabonBig Dye Terminator Cycle sequencing; Illumina NovaSeq 6000 [38]
Laboratoire des Fièvres Hémorragiques Virales de la Guinée’GuineaNanopore MinION[34]
Table 2. Outbreaks of Marburg virus disease from 1967 to January 2025.
Table 2. Outbreaks of Marburg virus disease from 1967 to January 2025.
CountryYearNo. CasesNo. DeathsCase Fatality Rate
Germany and Yugoslavia 196731723
South Africa19753133
Kenya19802150
Kenya198711100
Russia199011100
DR Congo1998–200015412883
Angola2004–200525222790
Uganda20074125
USA200810-
Uganda2012261557.7
Uganda201411100
Uganda20174375
Guinea202111100
Ghana20223266.7
Equatorial Guinea2023403587.5
Tanzania20239666.7
Rwanda2024661523.1
Tanzania *20259889%
Total60845374.5
* Ongoing outbreak of MVD.
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Kinimi, E. Marburg Virus Disease in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Currently Available Comprehensive Genomic Data up to 2024. Zoonotic Dis. 2025, 5, 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/zoonoticdis5010006

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Kinimi E. Marburg Virus Disease in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Currently Available Comprehensive Genomic Data up to 2024. Zoonotic Diseases. 2025; 5(1):6. https://doi.org/10.3390/zoonoticdis5010006

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Kinimi, Edson. 2025. "Marburg Virus Disease in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Currently Available Comprehensive Genomic Data up to 2024" Zoonotic Diseases 5, no. 1: 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/zoonoticdis5010006

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Kinimi, E. (2025). Marburg Virus Disease in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Currently Available Comprehensive Genomic Data up to 2024. Zoonotic Diseases, 5(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/zoonoticdis5010006

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