Digital Communication Strategies of Start-Ups in the Agri-Food Sector in Spain

Abstract

Start-ups have established themselves as drivers of dynamism and economic growth. However, they face many and varied challenges, with one of them being managing their communication strategy. This study aims to analyse the digital communication strategy of start-ups in the Agrotech and Foodtech sectors. For that purpose, the annual rankings published by El Referente between 2023 and 2025 were reviewed, and 17 companies were selected, 11 from the Agrotech sector and six from the Foodtech sector. Based on this sample, a mixed methodology was used, combining content analysis with social media metrics analysis. The results show an uneven use of communication strategies by start-ups. Almost all of them have their own communication channels, such as websites or social media profiles, but their use is not uniform, and in many cases, the potential offered by these tools could be improved. The findings contribute to the literature on strategic communication in start-ups by evidencing the gap between declared identity and substantive legitimacy in sectors of high social scrutiny, such as the agri-food sector.

1. Introduction

The start-up ecosystem has established itself as a driver of economic and social dynamism, contributing to innovation, competitiveness, and job creation in multiple sectors (Blank & Dorf, 2012; Ries, 2011), although its growth is conditioned by a high failure rate, particularly during the first years of life, due to resource constraints, lack of legitimacy, and absence of consolidated organisational processes. To this effect, classical literature identifies the ‘liability of newness’ and the ‘liability of smallness’ as determining factors that compromise the viability of emerging companies (Stinchcombe, 1965; Aldrich & Fiol, 1994).

According to a study conducted by the consulting firm Bambu PR in 2020, in which more than 100 CEOs and founders of Spanish start-ups participated, 85% of those surveyed recognise that an adequate communication strategy is essential for the launch and development of a start-up. Furthermore, 65% pointed out that businesses often fail because they have not communicated in line with their needs, and 73% considered this aspect vital for the beginning of the enterprise.

In this context, strategic communication emerges as a fundamental resource. According to Hallahan et al. (2007), it can be defined as all communication relevant to the survival and sustained success of an organisation. For agri-food start-ups, communication is not limited to providing information but is a structural positioning tool through which trust-based relationships are built, innovative practices are legitimised, and the value proposition is differentiated from established competitors.

The Spanish agri-food sector is fertile ground for entrepreneurship given the growing demand for sustainable, healthy, and technologically innovative products. However, start-ups in this field face an additional complexity: they must respond not only to market logic but also to strict regulatory standards, consolidated distribution dynamics, and a high level of social sensitivity to issues such as food safety and environmental sustainability.

The Agrotech sector occupies an increasingly significant position within the Spanish entrepreneurial ecosystem. While it is still moderate in absolute terms, it is undergoing dynamic and strategic growth. In 2024, the number of Agrotech start-ups was 133, rising to 176 in 2025, representing the establishment of 43 new initiatives in a single year, or 32%, which is higher than many traditional sectors of innovative entrepreneurship in Spain. Even though these figures are still considerably lower than those seen in more well-established and higher-volume sectors, they do nevertheless reflect a significant expansion trend that serves to reinforce the position of Agrotech as an emerging sector with considerable potential. In 2024, the sector achieved a turnover of more than €330 million and generated more than 3700 jobs on a national scale, thereby demonstrating its capacity to create economic value and skilled employment, particularly in areas associated with the rural environment and the agri-food system.

This recent growth in Agrotech can be attributed to several key trends, including sustainability, the ecological transition, the digitalisation of agricultural processes, and the need to strengthen food security. These factors are driving the development of solutions focused on water use efficiency, smart crop monitoring, automation and robotisation of agricultural tasks, and the optimisation of productive resources.

1.1. The Importance of Communication in the Entrepreneurial Ecosystem

Analysis of the literature demonstrates that communication strategies in start-ups serve a dual purpose: an instrumental purpose by attracting financial resources, building networks, and generating awareness; and a symbolic purpose by building legitimacy, trust, and reputation. In the case of the Spanish agri-food sector, this dual function is intensified due to social sensitivity regarding sustainability, food safety, and health.

In such a volatile and uncertain context, strategic communication is an essential key element for survival and sustained success. It is understood as “all communication that is substantial to the survival and sustained success of an entity” (Hallahan et al., 2007, p. 3), which implies the intentional use of communication in support of the strategic objectives of the organisation.

In the case of start-ups, strategic communication fulfils various functions, including the construction of intangible resources, as it contributes to generating social capital, reputation, and reliance, which are key elements for companies without an established track record (Fombrun, 1996; Cornelissen, 2017); attracting investors and customers, a distinctive identity allows for a clear expression of the business model, values, and market positioning (Navis & Glynn, 2010); management of the internal and external reputation, as employees are considered critical stakeholders, since their communicative behaviours directly affect organisational reputation (Hatch & Schultz, 2008) and internal communication encourages the rapid adaptation of new members and their alignment with strategic objectives; and legitimisation and differentiation in environments characterised by information asymmetries, where early brand communication allows start-ups to build social legitimacy and differentiate themselves from competitors (Suchman, 1995; Zimmerman & Zeitz, 2002).

Consequently, strategic communication in start-ups is not an ancillary resource but a structural necessity directly linked to their survival and growth capacity, and this requires a significant effort that demands the integration of channels and formats that do not always work the same way in all areas.

Despite the growing body of research on strategic communication in start-ups (Godulla & Men, 2022; Wiesenberg et al., 2020), there is a scarcity of studies that empirically examine how this strategy is materialised in owned channels—websites and social media—of companies in the agri-food sector, which is characterised by particularly high social sensitivity around food safety, sustainability, and regulatory compliance. This study aims to address that gap by analysing how Spanish Agrotech and Foodtech start-ups operationalise their communication strategy through their digital presence and what this reveals about the distance between their declared identity and the substantive legitimacy criteria established in the literature.

1.2. Corporate Communication and Strategic Communication in Start-Ups

Corporate communication integrates informational and symbolic flows that articulate identity, culture, reputation, and stakeholder relations; strategic communication aligns these flows with objectives and the competitive context (Godulla & Men, 2022; Wiesenberg et al., 2020). In the context of start-ups, this alignment is manifested in decisions concerning positioning, signalling, and narrative, with a marked emphasis on cross-channel consistency and measurement (Chaudhri et al., 2022; Men et al., 2019). The combination of agility and resource constraints gives rise to low-cost, iterative strategies that are intensive in owned and earned media and to a pragmatic use of one-way and two-way approaches depending on the objectives (awareness, acquisition, and retention) and phase (Rudeloff et al., 2022a; Miller & Gereykhanova, 2022). In practice, informal tools such as WhatsApp and messaging are becoming established as channels for business and coordination (Kottani & K.N, 2021), while in product development, changing preferences for communication tools are observed as the project progresses through its cycle (Kopplin, 2021). As the organisation matures, the investor relations (IRs) function emerges as a sub-function of financial communication (Hoffmann et al., 2025). Reputation functions as a relational asset that reduces risk perception and enables adoption, alliances, and sales (Konya-Baumbach et al., 2019). In volatile environments, the entrepreneur’s brand and their ability to give meaning to the value proposition are decisive in building legitimacy (Rode & Vallaster, 2005; Singhal & Kapur, 2024). In the field of technology, the integration of technical precision and strategic clarity in external communication is imperative for the legitimisation of disruptive promises and the negotiation with licensees or partners (Bruce, 2021; Tomita, 2022). The present study hypothesises that the communicative leadership style adopted by the CEO exerts a significant influence on the internal trust, commitment, and organisational citizenship behaviours that are observed within the organisation (Men, 2021; Men et al., 2021). In the context of talent management, the articulation of a social vision of entrepreneurship has been demonstrated to attract profiles that are aligned with the organisational culture (van Balen & Tarakci, 2024; Yue et al., 2019). In the context of investor relations, transparency and the reporting of milestones (key performance indicators, customers, and intellectual property) have been demonstrated to facilitate due diligence and enhance access to capital (Dorfleitner et al., 2018; Piazza et al., 2023). In the context of acquisition processes, the involvement of management and proactive communication with stakeholders have been identified as key differentiating factors (Polowczyk et al., 2021; Shah & Guild, 2022).

1.3. Own Media and Digital Communication in the Sector

The ownership of media and digital communication within the sector has been a subject of considerable interest. The advent of digitisation has had a profound impact on the realm of communication, characterised by an augmentation in interactivity, traceability, and the datafication of communication. This has consequently led to a reconfiguration of processes pertaining to public relations, marketing, and issue management (Abu-Ayyash, 2025; Men et al., 2019). The evolution of multimedia formats and interactive narratives has precipitated a paradigm shift in the architecture of messages and the user experience (Yan, 2015; Herrero, 2021). The validation of proposals and the attraction of attention by start-ups is dependent on platforms (social, crowdfunding, and marketplaces) (Park & Loo, 2022). The utilisation of predictive artificial intelligence and data-driven marketing methodologies empowers organisations to undertake comprehensive segmentation and personalisation initiatives on a large scale. Nevertheless, this evolution concomitantly gives rise to a range of ethical and governance challenges (Kasem et al., 2024; Gil García & Presol Herrero, 2025). In Southeast Asian ecosystems, AI-enhanced communication strategies are redefining benchmarks of effectiveness (Sonni, 2026; Gil García & Presol Herrero, 2025). An integrated owned–earned–paid asset strategy necessitates narrative consistency, audience granularity, and a measurement framework that connects communication metrics with business results (Oliveira et al., 2024; Tetyana, 2023). The utilisation of dialogic communication on social media, characterised by timely responses, active listening, and co-creation, has been demonstrated to exert a positive influence on identification and advocacy (Z. F. Chen et al., 2023; Rudeloff et al., 2022a).

1.3.1. The Corporate Website as the Hub of Digital Presence

The corporate website serves as the primary digital interface, providing official reference material for critical audiences (i.e., customers, investors, and the press) and functioning as a conversion platform (Teadi, 2023). In the context of e-commerce and direct-to-consumer models, indications of trust, such as payment methods, seals, and policies, have been shown to influence credibility and purchase intent, thereby mitigating the initial mistrust (Lakeman et al., 2021; Konya-Baumbach et al., 2019).

The critical dimensions that have been identified by Teadi (2023) and Herrero (2021) include the clarity of the value proposition and the problem (above the fold), a task-oriented information architecture, social proof (cases, logos, and testimonials), accessible UX, and a coherent visual narrative. In high-impact sectors, communication about sustainability and circular models has been demonstrated to reinforce legitimacy and differentiation (Hoang & Böckel, 2024; Kulkov, 2023).

The website conveys both a narrative identity, i.e., origin, purpose, and values, and a visual system, i.e., logo, fonts, and palette. These are essential for reputation building (Ala-Kortesmaa et al., 2022; Rode & Vallaster, 2005). The utilisation of graphic consistency and visual resources, such as infographics and motion, has been demonstrated to enhance recognition and recall (Nithyasree & Sowmmiya, 2022; Tetyana, 2023).

The evaluation process should incorporate a range of metrics, including those related to acquisition (e.g., SEO, CTR), onsite engagement (e.g., time spent on the page, scroll depth, and micro-interactions), conversion (e.g., leads generated, MQL/SQL conversion rates, and CAC), and retention/cohorts (e.g., LTV, churn rate). In terms of governance, multi-criteria approaches such as AHP and grey clustering have been shown to facilitate the diagnosis of the maturity of communication management (Timóteo et al., 2024; Tetyana, 2023). Analytical listening has been demonstrated to facilitate the detection of market signals and the anticipation of trends (Simon & Leker, 2016; Men et al., 2019).

1.3.2. Social Media

Network platforms offer extensive reach, social proof, and forums for dialogue with strategic audiences, thereby influencing legitimacy and adoption (Z. F. Chen et al., 2023; Park & Loo, 2022). Recent studies have described discursive patterns and visual strategies that are characteristic of start-ups on social media (Fernández Torres et al., 2025a; Kim, 2024).

An effective strategy combines product–platform fit, editorial pillars, an organic–paid–collaborative mix, and continuous experimentation (Baidya et al., 2024; Oliveira et al., 2024). In the context of sports verticals in Spain, several exemplary practices can be identified on Instagram. These include regularity, storytelling by milestones, utilisation of native formats, and collaborations (Lobillo-Mora & Paniagua-Rojano, 2025; Fernández Torres et al., 2025a).

As demonstrated in the research by Z. F. Chen et al. (2023) and Ji et al. (2022), an increase in dialogue and responsiveness has been shown to result in enhanced brand identification and active advocacy. The articulation between decision-making logic (efficiency vs. exploration) and content strategies has been demonstrated to enhance engagement (Rudeloff et al., 2022a), and thematic programming and interactive resources have been shown to increase participation (Shao et al., 2025; Baidya et al., 2024).

Authenticity and leadership qualities such as the ability to listen are pivotal in addressing issues and crises (Men, 2021; Men et al., 2021). As Wiesenberg et al. (2020) and Egorycheva et al. (2022) note, challenges persist in the realms of governance, coordination, and response speed in high-visibility environments. The extant literature suggests protocols for escalation, roles, and communication recovery after incidents (Sary et al., 2024; Shah & Guild, 2022).

In addition to reach and engagement (ER, shares, and saves), evaluation should link referral traffic, leads, and cost/revenue metrics (CAC, attributed LTV) through attribution frameworks and controlled experimentation (Shao et al., 2025; Park & Loo, 2022). It is imperative to exercise caution when employing vanity metrics, as this can potentially distort practices and content, particularly within the context of science communication start-ups (Yang et al., 2025; Oliveira et al., 2024).

Building on the theoretical framework outlined above, Figure 1 presents the conceptual model that guides this study. The model posits that start-ups in the agri-food sector operate under structural constraints—liability of newness and resource scarcity (Stinchcombe, 1965; Aldrich & Fiol, 1994)—that condition their strategic communication options. Within these constraints, strategic communication (Hallahan et al., 2007) is operationalised through two owned-media channels: the corporate website and social media platforms. Website communication is analysed across three dimensions—strategic content, usability, and interactivity—while social media is examined through both quantitative engagement metrics and qualitative content analysis across six platforms (LinkedIn, Instagram, TikTok, X, YouTube, and Facebook). Additionally, the CEO’s communicative role—particularly on LinkedIn—is modelled as a complementary legitimacy signal that partially compensates for institutional transparency deficits in resource-constrained contexts (Rode & Vallaster, 2005; Men, 2021). Together, these communicative practices contribute to two analytically distinct forms of legitimacy as defined by Suchman (1995) and operationalised for start-ups by Zimmerman and Zeitz (2002): cognitive legitimacy, constructed through the recognition of identity, mission, and values; and substantive legitimacy, which requires verifiable evidence of performance, governance, and social impact. The central analytical proposition of this study is that the distance between these two forms—here termed the legitimacy gap—is particularly pronounced in the agri-food sector, where audiences and regulatory bodies apply stricter substantive criteria to emerging organisations.

2. Materials and Methods

In order to operationalise the concepts of legitimacy, identity, and strategic communication described in the theoretical framework, the empirical analysis is structured around two domains: the corporate website—as the hub of digital presence and as a platform for the construction of credibility (Teadi, 2023; Herrero, 2021)—and social media—as spaces for dialogic interaction and social proof (Kent & Taylor, 2002; Z. F. Chen et al., 2023). The three dimensions of website analysis—strategic content, usability, and interactivity—correspond directly to the communicative functions identified in the literature: projection of organisational identity, accessibility to target audiences, and facilitation of dialogue with stakeholders. This methodological design allows for assessing not only what start-ups communicate but also the degree to which their digital channels support the construction of the substantive legitimacy that the literature identifies as critical for their survival and growth (Suchman, 1995; Zimmerman & Zeitz, 2002).

In the context of digital transformation, corporate websites have established themselves as strategic communication tools and the main showcase for organisations in the online environment. Their function goes beyond that of a mere repository of information, becoming a key channel for managing image, establishing links with audiences, and achieving business objectives (García García et al., 2017). The advent of the Internet transformed the traditional communication paradigm from a unidirectional model to an interactive ecosystem in which the user takes on an active role; corporate websites ceased to be simple information showcases and became spaces for dialogue, participation, and building lasting relationships (Kent & Taylor, 2002). In this context, the web portal stands as the core of the digital communication mix, whose effectiveness depends on a planned and strategically oriented design. A lack of consistency between objectives, content, and usability can damage credibility and reputation, while proper management provides competitive advantages, increases visibility, and strengthens the corporate image (Pollach, 2005).

Hence, the need for systematic methodologies that allow for the evaluation of the communicative effectiveness of websites beyond exclusively technical criteria, integrating strategic and communicational analysis approaches (Segura-Mariño et al., 2020).

The analysis of corporate websites falls within the concept of web quality, understood as the ability of a page to meet the expectations of users and owners through measurable attributes (Aladwani & Palvia, 2002). This concept is approached methodologically from two main perspectives: user studies, focused on perceptions and experiences, such as usability tests, and expert evaluations, based on predefined criteria through heuristic audits (Sutcliffe, 2002).

The specialised literature identifies various dimensions that make up web quality (Morales-Vargas et al., 2020). Three of these are essential for assessing communicative effectiveness: strategic content, usability–navigability, and interactivity (Q. Chen & Yen, 2004; Palmer, 2002). These dimensions form the core of an analytical framework that allows us to examine the consistency between communication objectives and digital performance.

Content is the cornerstone of digital communication, as it reflects corporate identity and translates strategic objectives into messages (Díaz et al., 2008). To be effective, it must be accurate, relevant, up-to-date, and aligned with organisational values (Marín Dueñas & Lasso de la Vega González, 2017).

The main indicators include corporate information (mission, vision, values, history, and culture), commercial information (description of products, services, and projects), corporate social responsibility policy (policies and actions aimed at stakeholders), and information resources (contact details, press rooms, and media materials).

Usability refers to ease of use, while navigability refers to the organisation of information and its accessibility (Nielsen, 1993; Krug, 2006). A smooth experience contributes to satisfaction and a positive perception of the company (Hassan Montero, 2006).

Key indicators include structure and design (logical organisation, visual consistency, and readability), language and writing (clarity, simplicity, and accuracy), navigation tools (site map and internal search engine), and accessibility and identification (adaptation for people with disabilities and consistency between the brand and URL).

On the other hand, interactivity is inherent to digital communication and is linked to the dialogic paradigm of online public relations (Kent & Taylor, 2002; Capriotti et al., 2021). Its objective is to promote a two-way exchange that fosters trust and consolidates long-term relationships. Key indicators include direct communication channels (forms, online chats, email, or telephone), indirect channels (FAQs and virtual press rooms), user participation (subscriptions, comments, and ratings), and integration with social media (links to corporate profiles and synergies with other digital environments).

In summary, analysing corporate communication on websites requires a comprehensive approach that combines content, usability, and interactivity. These three areas cannot be evaluated in isolation but rather as interdependent dimensions that determine the strategic effectiveness of the portal. An effective corporate website is one that manages to convey messages consistent with the organisational identity, guarantees its accessibility, and encourages interaction with stakeholders, establishing itself as a key resource for reputation, image, and relationship building in the digital ecosystem (Piñeiro-Naval et al., 2017).

2.1. Analysis of Social Media

The study also aims to analyse communication strategies and the use of social media in the start-up sector. The methodological choice responds to the need to simultaneously address quantitative aspects—linked to digital performance metrics—and qualitative aspects—related to the meaning and strategic intent of messages. As Latorre et al. (2003) argue, methodology is the systematic plan that guides the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data in order to provide valid and relevant results.

In this context, a mixed design combining content analysis and social media metrics was chosen. This methodological combination is appropriate for a complex subject of study such as digital communication in start-ups, characterised by its dynamism, multidimensionality, and strong strategic orientation.

2.2. Methodological Design

The central focus of the research is content analysis, a technique with a long tradition in the field of communication. Krippendorff (1990) defines it as a procedure that allows reproducible and valid inferences to be made from recorded data, while Piñuel (2002) conceives it as a set of interpretative procedures applied to media messages, combining quantitative and qualitative approaches. This method is also justified by its ability to process large volumes of information (Sánchez-Aranda, 2005) and by its frequent use in the description of discursive and media strategies (Igartua, 2006).

According to Ruiz Olabuénaga (2012), content analysis can be exploratory or confirmatory, direct or indirect, quantitative or qualitative. This study will use a combined strategy: quantitative patterns of dissemination and interaction will be measured and, in parallel, the strategic logic of the messages will be interpreted qualitatively.

The corpus will consist of social media posts from a group of start-ups selected for their relevance to the technology and innovation ecosystem. A period of twelve consecutive months will be considered, with the aim of observing both the evolution of sustained strategies and short-term responses to specific events.

The platforms analysed will be Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn, X/Twitter, YouTube, and TikTok, as they account for a large part of the start-ups’ communication activity and allow for the comparison of different interaction dynamics. The unit of analysis will be each individual post (text, image, video, or link), together with the associated metrics: number of reactions, comments, shares, impressions, and clicks on links.

Data collection will be carried out using the FanpageKarma tool, which enables the systematic extraction of information on dates, content, reactions, and engagement rates. This software, frequently used in digital communication research, ensures a replicable and reliable collection process.

In line with Berelson’s (1952) assertion that the validity of content analysis depends on the quality of its categories, two levels of coding are established: the quantitative dimension, focused on activity metrics (number of posts and temporal frequency), interaction (comments, shares, replies, and mentions), community (evolution of followers and potential reach), visibility (impressions and appearance in feeds), and dissemination (users reached and message propagation).

Here, the perspective of user interaction will be integrated, considering the typology of Sang et al. (2020), which differentiates between signalling interaction (likes, shares) and expressive interaction (comments, creation of related content). This distinction is fundamental for assessing the degree of audience engagement in the digital environment.

As a complement to the quantitative analysis, a qualitative study is carried out based on examining the formats, times, and topics that work best in the sector on each channel.

This system of categories will allow us to quantify the results and, at the same time, interpret the strategic meaning of the communication practices of start-ups.

The methodological process is carried out in four phases:

• Data collection and organisation: Compilation of all publications from the study period using FanpageKarma and organisation of the corpus into databases differentiated by social network and company.
• Coding: Application of an analysis sheet (Piñuel, 2002) that will allow each publication to be classified according to the established categories.
• Statistical processing: Descriptive analysis of quantitative variables (frequencies, means, and standard deviations) to identify performance patterns.
• Qualitative interpretation: Analysis of communication strategies based on the coding of the messages examined.

2.3. Sample

The analysis sample is based on the annual rankings published by El Referente between 2023 and 2025, whose data is extracted from its own database, Ecosistema Startup. In this database, a jury of analysts and experts evaluate and score start-ups. The creation of this ranking entails the preselection of 1000 companies on an annual basis, with the proviso that said companies have raised in excess of one million euros. Of these, the top 150 companies are selected.

In the preparation of the rankings, Banco Sabadell BStartup, the multinational consulting services firm Deloitte, the Spanish law firm RCD, and the international legal and business services firm DWF collaborate. The present study focuses on start-ups classified in the Agrotech and Foodtech sectors.

A total of 19 start-ups were identified: 11 belonging to Agrotech (Enkitek, Weitec, Koa Biotech, ZoomAgri, Ekonoke, Consentio, Microneox, Mulching Regeneration, Hispargán, Agrobit, and Magnifio) and eight to Foodtech (Competitivo, Andajuicya, Rebolt, BiLemon, Gastroapp, Gloop, DoBBox, and Reduce Food Waste). The sample was subsequently reduced to 17, as information was missing for two start-ups. Competitivo and Rebolt were eliminated. Finally, 11 Agrotech and 6 Foodtech start-ups were analysed.

For the analysis of the websites, a study sheet was used that included various points from Stanford’s Decalogue on website credibility, such as mission, vision and values, location, origin or history, team, updating, transparency, privacy policies, interactivity, accessibility, languages, usability, readability, third-party endorsement, contact, organisation, and social networks.

In addition, five laws have been evaluated: Hick’s law, Fitts’ law, Miller’s law, Von Restorff’s law, and the serial position effect law. Hick’s law states that a website is more complex the more options it has, since the user will have to make more decisions to reach the final point. Next, Fitts’ Law advocates for buttons or targets that are large enough to facilitate usability. Miller’s Law argues that people’s retention capacity is limited, so web pages should be simplified to have only seven elements on the screen at the same time. Finally, Von Restorff’s law advocates for the use of distinctive colours or different fonts to highlight certain elements of greater importance. The law of serial position effect considers that users better retain the first and last things they see, so the least important content would be located in the central area.

3. Results

3.1. Agrotech and Foodtech Start-Ups

Between 2023 and 2025, El Referente reports will provide an overview of the evolution of Spanish start-ups in the Agrotech and Foodtech sectors, which are both linked to technological innovation in the agricultural and food industries. In the case of Agrotech, three young projects with relevant prospects were identified in 2023: Koa Biotech (Catalonia, founded in 2021), which was ranked 16th in the national start-up innovation ranking; Enkitek (Basque Country and Catalonia, founded in 2021), which was ranked 37th; and Weitec (Valencia, founded in 2021), which was ranked 75th. These positions reflect the visibility and recognition that these initiatives gained during their initial consolidation phase. New start-ups such as ZoomAgri (Madrid, 2023), Ekonoke (Madrid, 2022), and Consentio (Barcelona, 2021) will join the list in 2024. They may not appear in the top 100, but they are still part of the national technology ecosystem, which is particularly concentrated in urban centres such as Madrid and Barcelona. By 2025, the sector will show greater diversity with the following five cases: Microneox (Navarra, 2025); Mulching Regenerativo (Madrid, 2025); Hispargán (Valencia, 2024); Magnifio (Barcelona, 2023); and Agrobit (Córdoba, 2011). The presence of Agrobit, with its experience spanning over a decade, highlights the coexistence of emerging start-ups and established companies within the Agrotech ecosystem.

The Foodtech sector is following a similar pattern of growth and diversification. In 2023, Gloop (Bilbao, 2021), which reached 40th place in the ranking of the 100 most innovative companies, and Dobbox (Murcia, 2021), ranked 89th, stood out. Both reflect an interesting phenomenon: the emergence of projects with national reach from regional hubs far from Madrid and Barcelona. In 2025, the offering will expand with new initiatives such as Andajuicya (Malaga, 2024), Rebolt (Madrid, 2024), BiLemon (Barcelona, 2023), Gastroapp (Malaga, 2017), and Reduce Food Waste (Galicia, no complete foundation data available). While these start-ups are not included in the ranking of the 100 most innovative companies, their presence on El Referente’s lists highlights the sector’s territorial and thematic growth.

3.2. Analysis of the Website

As is illustrated in Appendix A (Figure A1), analysis of the 17 selected start-ups reveals clear patterns in how they communicate their mission, vision, and values, and how they present information about their origins, team, and transparency. Eleven of the websites present these strategic elements clearly, while three present them in a less structured form, and two present them incompletely. BiLemon stands out in this section because of its organisation and clarity (Figure 1). In contrast, the location is displayed accurately on only three pages and could be improved on another three. Most start-ups do not include this information. Twelve websites provide information on origin or history, although with varying degrees of clarity: four in a concise and structured manner, five in an acceptable but improvable form, and three in a disorganised presentation.

The team section presents a mixed view: seven start-ups include photographs and detailed information, conveying transparency and credibility. Reduce Food Waste stands out from this group by combining team information with endorsements from third parties and partner organisations. However, two start-ups have weak presentations, and the rest provide no information at all. Most of the content is updated, with 14 pages correctly updated, although there are still examples of improvements that could be made.

Transparency, or the clear disclosure of financial, impact, or governance data, is one of the weakest points. Only two start-ups adequately comply, five partially show certain indicators, six provide insufficient information, and the rest lack elements that allow this aspect to be assessed. This value is complemented by privacy policies, which are present on eleven pages but are not exhaustive in most cases.

Eight pages stand out in terms of interactivity because they integrate multiple dynamic elements, such as forms, downloads, and educational resources. Relevant examples include Weitec, which has a dedicated section for farmers, and ZoomAgri, which enables users to join the start-up team. However, some start-ups, such as Mulching Regeneration and Agrobit, have technical limitations, such as buttons that do not work, which hinder the user experience. By contrast, accessibility is a major shortcoming across the board. No website can be considered fully accessible to all audiences in terms of either inclusive design or digital accessibility options.

Language analysis shows that, although three of them only offer Spanish and English, six start-ups offer bilingual versions. In the case of Andajuicya and BiLemon, the two languages are mixed within the same interface, which causes confusion and affects communicative coherence.

In terms of usability, nine of the start-ups offer smooth and clear navigation. Four could be improved slightly, and two show significant shortcomings. One of these is Enkitek, whose website requires excessive scrolling, hindering the user experience. Readability, on the other hand, is widely achieved: almost all pages feature clear, hierarchical typography. Only two require adjustments.

The organisation and financing are reflected well in seven start-ups but not so well in another seven. Three cases are intermediate and could be improved by incorporating innovative fundraising formulas, such as crowdfunding or business angles. Ekonoke is an exemplary case of clear financial presentation. In contrast, start-ups such as Hispargán and Magnifio demonstrate structural deficiencies that impact the perception of organisation and the user experience. A similar situation arises with Gastroapp, whose digital proposal could be improved in terms of presentation and usability.

The logos of the social networks on which the start-up has an active profile can be found on 15 web pages. However, some show an error when clicking on the link because it is not linked correctly or the social network profile is not active.

Taken together, the website analysis reveals a consistent pattern that maps onto the cognitive/substantive legitimacy distinction central to this study. The majority of start-ups (11 out of 17) clearly communicate their mission, vision, and values, and 14 maintain updated content—evidence of an effort to construct cognitive legitimacy through declarative identity. However, substantive legitimacy is markedly absent: only two start-ups adequately disclose financial, governance, or impact data, and no website achieves full accessibility standards. This asymmetry—high declarative presence, low verifiable transparency—constitutes empirical evidence of the legitimacy gap proposed in the conceptual model. The pattern is consistent across both sub-sectors, although Foodtech start-ups such as Gloop and Andajuicya show stronger investment in usability and visual coherence, suggesting that consumer-facing companies prioritise cognitive signals (brand recognition, emotional connection) over substantive ones (accountability data). Agrotech companies, by contrast, tend to include more technical content but similarly fail to provide structured transparency mechanisms. These findings extend the argument of Konya-Baumbach et al. (2019) that digital trust signals are critical for early-stage adoption: in the absence of verifiable data, audiences cannot move beyond initial recognition towards informed evaluation of the organisation’s claims.

Legal Compliance

The analysis of the five laws of user experience reveals heterogeneous outcomes across the evaluated websites. Hick’s Law is optimally satisfied in eleven cases, suggesting the effective limitation of users’ decision-making options. Three websites require minor adjustments to streamline choices, two present notable deficiencies, and one fails to comply with the principle altogether. Fitts’ Law is fully met in eight instances, characterised by the presence of large and easily accessible buttons, whereas another eight websites would benefit from optimisation in terms of the target size and placement, and one does not conform to the law.

Regarding Miller’s Law, which addresses the limited capacity of short-term memory, only one start-up fully adheres to the principle. Nine exhibit partial compliance, six require substantial improvements to reduce cognitive load, and one shows complete non-compliance. Von Restorff’s Law, associated with the strategic use of distinctive visual or textual elements to enhance recall, is optimally implemented on two pages. However, nine websites need minor refinements, five display significant shortcomings, and one fails to apply the principle. Finally, the Law of Serial Position—concerning users’ tendency to better remember the first and last items in a sequence—is fulfilled in eight cases, could be improved in seven, and is not met in two instances.

3.3. Analysis of Social Media

3.3.1. Instagram

As is detailed in Appendix A (Figure A2), the analysis of the Instagram presence of the studied start-ups reveals that Gloop has the highest number of followers (5270), then Ekonoke (3175) and Andajuicya (1435). In terms of posting activity, Andajuicya is the most active with 85 posts, generating 959 likes and 126 comments. Despite having fewer posts (three), Gloop registers notable engagement with 409 likes and 32 comments. Other start-ups, such as Agrobit and Weitec, demonstrate an active presence with 27 and 43 posts, respectively, although they have less reach than the leaders. Consentio and GatroApp, on the other hand, have inactive accounts with no posts or interactions. This overview highlights the significant differences in reach, activity, and engagement among the start-ups analysed.

During the first half of 2025, Spanish start-ups in the agri-food and hospitality sectors demonstrated effective communication strategies tailored to their audiences. Andajuicya led the social media interaction, with posts about gastronomic experiences, product launches, and in-store promotions achieving up to 75 likes and 13 comments. Meanwhile, Gloop stood out for its dynamism and creativity, focusing on summer content and cinema campaigns that generated up to 209 interactions, reinforcing its fresh and fun image (Figure 2).

In the agricultural sector, Weitec’s communication focused on technological innovation and efficiency, showcasing drones and agricultural sensors at events and demonstrations. Its most relevant publication on 4YFN received 57 likes and two comments, reinforcing its position in precision agriculture and sustainability. Meanwhile, Agrobit, which focuses on agro-industrial management and sustainability, achieved up to 49 likes on content showcasing artificial intelligence-based solutions and traceability, thereby reinforcing its value proposition for agricultural companies and cooperatives.

• The best times and days to post

Analysis of interactions by day and time reveals strategic moments for maximising audience reach and engagement. The best times to post are mainly in the mornings and midday on weekdays. Notable times include Mondays at 9:00 a.m. with 21 interactions, Tuesdays at 12:00 p.m. with 130.2% engagement, Thursdays at 12:00 p.m. with 18 interactions and 91.3% engagement, and Fridays at 12:00 p.m. with 15 interactions and 82.3% engagement. Additionally, Saturday mornings, especially at 9:00 a.m., and Wednesday mornings also showed good reception, with 14–15 interactions. This consolidates these time slots as the most favourable for connecting with the audience.

Conversely, the worst times to post were in the early morning and late evening on certain days when engagement was minimal. Notable examples include Sunday at 6:00 a.m., Tuesday and Wednesday at 9:00 p.m., and Saturday at 3:00 p.m., which received only one interaction each. Monday at 6:00 a.m. and Sunday at 9:00 a.m. received two interactions each. These time slots demonstrate that the audience does not respond with the same intensity, so it is advisable to avoid posting at these times if you are looking to generate impact and engagement. Generally speaking, posts in the morning and at midday from Monday to Thursday attract the most attention and engagement, setting the tone for a more effective communication strategy.

• Top 10 images and videos

Between May and June 2025, the Instagram images for these start-ups convey fun, innovation, and sustainability. Gloop stood out with its summery, relatable content; Mulching Regenerativo showcased its ecological and educational approach to regenerative agriculture; and Weitec presented its precision farming technology, pest alerts, and event participation, combining innovation, efficiency, and hands-on learning.

During the analysed period, the ten most notable videos posted by start-ups on Instagram combined product promotion, education, and audience engagement. Gloop stood out with a cheerful video of its arrival at OCINE and an annual recap. Andajuicya promoted a healthy and approachable lifestyle through humour, educational comparisons (e.g., Fiat Punto vs. Ferrari), new dish launches, and playful interaction reels. Overall, the videos balanced entertainment, information, and emotional connection with followers.

• Top 50 words and hashtags

An analysis of the most frequently used words in the publications reveals a clear focus on innovation, sustainability, and user experience. The most frequently used terms are ‘our’, ‘local’, and ‘technology’, reflecting a friendly, community-oriented discourse and an emphasis on practical solutions and smart tools. Frequent use of words such as ‘efficiency’, ‘future’, ‘data’, ‘decisions’, and ‘accuracy’ highlights interest in optimisation, information-based management, and precision farming. In the case of Andajuicya, terms such as ‘products’, ‘flavour’, and ‘enjoy’ emphasise sensory and experiential communication. Meanwhile, the names of start-ups and locations, such as ‘Weitec’, ‘Agrobit’, ‘Málaga’, and ‘Cártama’, link the content to the brand’s identity and the geographical scope of its operations. Overall, the most frequently used words strike a balance between technological innovation, sustainability, and community engagement.

In Appendix A (Figure A2), we can see how an analysis of the most frequently used hashtags reveals a clear focus on three main areas: location, healthy eating, and agro-industrial technology. The most popular hashtags include #AlhaurínElGrande (60) and #Andajuicya (58), which reinforce brand identity and the connection to the region. In the gastronomic and sensory sphere, hashtags such as #MálagaFoodie (37), #CostaDelSol (32), #DesayunoSaludable (11), #ColdPressedJuice (11), and #BrunchTime (eight) emphasise the consumer experience, conscious eating, and the variety of natural products available. Conversely, content related to technology and digitisation in agriculture uses hashtags such as #Weitec (42), #AgriculturaDePrecisión (32), #Agrobit (15), #InnovaciónAgrícola (20), and #Agtech (19), reflecting interest in the sector’s efficiency, sustainability, and innovation. Finally, hashtags related to sustainability and food safety, such as #Sostenibilidad (9), #SeguridadAlimentaria (16), and #Dobbox (17), demonstrate the brands’ commitment to responsible practices and quality control. This shows how hashtags can reinforce a brand’s narrative and territorial positioning, as well as its values of innovation, health, and sustainability.

The Instagram data reveal a pattern that connects quantitative performance with qualitative communication logic in a theoretically meaningful way. The highest engagement figures are concentrated in Foodtech start-ups—Andajuicya (959 likes, 126 comments across 85 posts) and Gloop (409 likes despite only three posts)—whose content prioritises sensory experience, humour, and emotional proximity to the consumer. This high engagement per post ratio in Gloop’s case suggests that content quality and narrative coherence are stronger predictors of audience response than posting frequency alone, a finding consistent with Rudeloff et al. (2022b) on the role of decision logic in social media strategy. By contrast, Agrotech start-ups such as Weitec and Agrobit maintain regular activity but achieve more modest reach, reflecting the inherently lower emotional salience of precision agriculture content for general audiences. Crucially, the inactive accounts of Consentio and GastroApp—present on the platform but generating zero interaction—illustrate the risk identified by Konya-Baumbach et al. (2019): a dormant digital presence does not merely fail to build legitimacy, it actively undermines it by signalling organisational disengagement. In terms of legitimacy, Instagram functions primarily as a cognitive legitimacy channel for these start-ups, building recognition and social proof, but the absence of substantive content—impact data, verified claims, and governance information—means that even the most active accounts remain within the declarative register identified as insufficient in the conceptual model.

3.3.2. TikTok

The results reveal significant differences in the profiles evaluated on TikTok. Gloop stands out with considerable reach: 32.2 k followers, 35 posts, and a total of 4752 likes and 63 comments reflect an active community and high levels of interaction. In contrast, Consentio has a much more limited presence, with only three followers, two posts and 24 likes. There are no comments or shares, indicating a reduced reach and lower engagement. These data clearly demonstrate the differences in performance and reach between start-ups on the platform.

The TikTok posts by gloop_es clearly demonstrate the type of content that generates the most interaction. The most notable post, entitled ‘I want the machines running 24 h a day’, was published on 23 April 2025 and received 2191 likes, 19 shares, and 37 comments. This demonstrates a keen interest in dynamic and aspirational content related to product innovation.

Next is the 25 May 2025 post ‘Whattt???’, which received 555 likes, 10 shares, and eight comments. This reflects the audience’s curiosity and enthusiasm for surprising news. Other videos that generated good interaction include ‘Son cubiertos comestibles’ (‘They’re edible cutlery’) from 14 June (204 likes, zero shares, and one comment) and ‘#pajitascomestibles’ from 6 April (148 likes, three shares, and two comments). These videos stand out due to their innovative and educational content, showcasing sustainable products and creative practices in everyday consumption. Overall, videos that combine innovation, surprise, and a friendly tone tend to generate the greatest response from the audience on TikTok (Figure 3).

• The best times and days to post

The best days to post on TikTok are Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday and Sunday. The best times are in the afternoon and evening (3 p.m., 6 p.m., and 9 p.m.) when there is the most activity and engagement. The worst times are the early hours of the morning (midnight) and unusual times such as midnight on Monday or noon on Saturday, which tend to see less interaction. Generally speaking, the afternoon and evening from the middle to the end of the week are optimal, while posts made in the early hours of the morning or at the start of the day tend to reach fewer people.

• Top 10 images and videos

Three pieces of content stood out among the best posts for their greater impact and visibility. On 22 June 2025, the video ‘Cookies? No! #holyairbal’ demonstrated striking creativity, capturing the audience’s attention. On 24 May 2025, the post ‘#paratiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii’ demonstrated strong engagement, thanks to attractive, dynamic hashtags. On 21 April 2025, the video ‘Literally Edible Spoons’ was released, combining originality and humour to establish itself as one of the most successful pieces of content on the TikTok profile.

Some of the best videos on the profile are recent posts that have generated a lot of interaction. On 28 June 2025, the video ‘What’s next? Edible spoons? @OCINE’ combined humour and creativity to capture the audience’s attention. On 26 June, ‘New at OCINE!! @OCINE #cinema #madrid’ stood out for its local relevance and entertaining content. Other successful content included the recap ‘2024 was CRAZY! Here’s a recap of what happened. #startup’ from 19 June and original videos such as ‘The best for last’ (17 June) and ‘It tastes like chocolate—thank you!’ (15 June). Posts such as ‘They’re edible cutlery!!!’ (14 June) and ‘Me when a new client asks me “Is that all?” #Invested’ (6 June) have demonstrated the effectiveness of combining humour, trends, and creative content to generate engagement on TikTok.

• Top 50 words and hashtags

The profile’s most popular content combines creativity, humour, and originality. Highlights include edible spoons, edible straws, and biscuits, as well as successful hashtags such as #holyairbal, #parati, and #startup, which generate high engagement. Videos about the new CEO, a 2024 recap, coffee, and cinema or Madrid-related themes capture attention. Topics such as flavour, cutlery, cardboard, and machines, as well as surprising endings and memorable moments, are key to the profile’s best content.

The TikTok data present the starkest performance divergence in the entire sample and one that carries theoretical implications beyond mere reach differences. Gloop’s dominance—32,200 followers, 4752 likes, and a single post generating 2191 likes—is not simply a consequence of resource investment but reflects a deliberate alignment between platform logic and content strategy: short-form videos combining surprise, humour, and product innovation map directly onto TikTok’s algorithmic and cultural norms. This alignment constitutes what Hallahan et al. (2007) would term strategic intentionality—the conscious adaptation of the message format to channel affordances. Consentio’s near-absent presence (three followers, two posts), by contrast, suggests a nominal adoption of the platform without strategic adaptation, a pattern that generates no legitimacy signal of any kind. Qualitatively, Gloop’s most successful content—edible cutlery, cinema collaborations, and founder appearances—functions as a form of cognitive legitimacy construction through novelty and memorability rather than through substantive claims. This is consistent with the platform-specific logic proposed in the conceptual model: TikTok operates as a social proof and reach channel not as a transparency or accountability mechanism. The practical implication is that start-ups without the creative capacity or resources to produce high-quality short-form video content may be better served by concentrating their efforts on platforms better suited to their communication strengths rather than maintaining a token presence that signals disengagement.

3.3.3. X

On social network site X, ZoomAgri is the frontrunner with 1249 followers, followed by Ekonoke with 384 and GastroApp with 101. They all have a high number of accounts they follow, particularly Ekonoke and GastroApp, suggesting a strategy that focuses more on following than content generation. These figures suggest a limited presence on the platform and reduced reach.

During the first months of 2025, ZoomAgri used X to establish itself as an active participant in the technical and regulatory discussions within the agro-industrial sector (Figure 4). The company participated in events such as #AgtechDay, organised by @InnventureOK at the Innovation Park. There, it took part in the panel From Argentina to the World: Start-ups in the Process of Internationalisation, showcasing its presence in professional networks and its international reach alongside other start-ups in the sector. Furthermore, ZoomAgri engaged in regulatory discussions on soybeans in Brazil and Argentina, offering insights on marketing regulation revisions and providing information on SENASA and current regulations. This has solidified its reputation as a leading authority and benchmark in agricultural technology and grain quality control.

• The best times and days to post

Analysis of online posts shows that the best time to share content is midday on Wednesdays, specifically at 12:00, when there are more posts and greater audience activity. By contrast, there are fewer posts at other times, such as 3:00 p.m. on the same day, suggesting that midday is the optimal time to maximise visibility and engagement.

• Top 10 images and videos

ZoomAgri’s image is best characterised as corporate and professional, focusing on its participation in industry events and the provision of relevant technical information. Specifically, the publication on 4 June 2025 highlights ZoomAgri’s participation in #AgtechDay at the Innovation Park, where it will be taking part in a panel discussion on the internationalisation of start-ups. This event further reinforces ZoomAgri’s position as a benchmark in agricultural innovation. Similarly, the 2 April 2025 publication offers regulatory insights into the marketing of soybeans in Brazil and Argentina. It explains Brazil’s proposal to reduce moisture content and Argentina’s current SENASA regulations, showcasing ZoomAgri’s engagement in technical and regulatory discussions. These messages combine professionalism, sector relevance, and social media visibility.

• Top 50 words and hashtags

The best words used in Zoom Agri publications reflect a professional and technical approach focused on innovation and active participation in the agro-industrial sector. Terms such as Argentina, Brazil, start-ups, internationalisation, standards, SENASA, ANEC, humidity, and marketing show an interest in regulation, quality, standards, and production processes in the agro-industry. In addition, words related to events and collaboration, such as panel, moderated, organised, together, Innventure, OK, EiwaAg, Calice, Deepagroco, and Ivana Vidal, underline the importance of participation in industry forums and meetings. Other terms, such as process, proposes, discussion, contribution, and resistance, indicate the debate and technical deliberation that accompany the implementation of standards and good agricultural practices. Taken together, these words reinforce ZoomAgri’s image as an informed, involved, and committed player in innovation and regulation in agribusiness, further highlighting that its unique and most used hashtag is #AgTechDay, linked to leading events in the sector.

• Feelings generated

Zoom Agri’s posts mainly generate neutral reactions, displaying an informative and professional tone, with little negative perception from the audience.

The X data reveal a qualitatively distinct communication logic from the reach-and-engagement dynamic observed on Instagram and TikTok. ZoomAgri’s use of the platform—participating in regulatory debates on soybean standards, engaging with sector events such as #AgtechDay, and positioning itself as a technical authority in agro-industrial regulation—reflects a deliberate strategy of substantive signalling directed at a professional and institutional audience rather than at general consumers. This is the only instance in the sample where a start-up’s social media activity approaches the substantive legitimacy register: by demonstrating expertise in regulatory frameworks (SENASA, ANEC) and engaging publicly with sector governance, ZoomAgri provides verifiable evidence of organisational competence that goes beyond declarative identity. The predominantly neutral sentiment of its publications—informative and professional rather than emotional—further distinguishes this platform’s logic from the affective strategies dominant on Instagram and TikTok and aligns with the technical authority function attributed to X in the conceptual model. However, the limited follower base (1249) and the reduced activity of the other two start-ups present on the platform (Ekonoke and GastroApp, both following-heavy but content-light) indicate that this substantive legitimacy potential remains largely unrealised at the sector level. The contrast between ZoomAgri’s strategic use of X and the passive presence of the other accounts suggests that platform-specific legitimacy building requires not only channel adoption, but a coherent content strategy aligned with the epistemic norms of each platform’s audience.

3.3.4. YouTube

An analysis of the YouTube presence of various start-ups in the agro-industrial sector reveals uneven activity in terms of followers and published content. Agrobit leads with 91 followers and 12 posts, accumulating eight likes, reflecting a greater commitment and strategy to promote its technological solutions. Other companies such as Business Factory Food, Consentio, doBBox Frío, and Ekonoke have not yet developed their audiovisual content, indicating potential for growth on the platform. Meanwhile, Enkitek and Weitec have one post each, totalling two likes per video, and ZoomAgri stands out with two posts and one like, showing the beginnings of a digital presence. This overview shows that, while some start-ups are consolidating their communication on YouTube, others have significant opportunities to leverage the platform as a channel for dissemination, visibility, and positioning in the agricultural sector.

The 25 best YouTube posts highlight innovation, digitalisation, and sustainability in agriculture, with Agrobit leading the way in success stories, certifications, and events such as Expoagro and CDA 2025, while Weitec, Enkitek, and ZoomAgri provide precision and automation solutions, consolidating digital transformation and efficiency in the agro-industrial sector (Figure 5).

• The best times and days to post

Analysis of YouTube posting times and days shows that Thursday at 12:00 noon is the most effective time, with an interaction rate of 100%, making it the best time to share content. There is also a notable frequency of posts on Wednesdays at 6:00 p.m. and Thursdays at 6:00 p.m., although no interaction data is available. In contrast, times such as Friday at midnight or Tuesday at 3:00 p.m. appear to be the least recommended, as they coincide with times of low audience activity and lower potential reach.

• Top 10 images and videos

The top 10 videos on YouTube in the agrotechnology sector showcase success stories and innovative solutions. Notable examples include Agrobit, with the digitisation of Grupo Los Lazos, its platform adopted by more than 250 companies and 2BS certification in sustainability, as well as its partnership with SAP at the CDA 2025 Congress. The event will also include presentations on the latest tech developments in drones and sensors from Weitec, automation from Enkitek, and digitisation from ZoomAgri. These innovations are set to transform the agribusiness sector, making technology a key driver of efficiency and change.

• Top 50 words and hashtags

The 50 most frequently used words highlight digitisation, Agrobit, SAP, and process management, emphasising efficiency, profitability, sustainability, and traceability in agriculture. They also reflect the importance of collaborative innovation and the use of YouTube to disseminate success stories and technological solutions in the agro-industrial sector.

The most frequently used hashtags highlight the digitisation and modernisation of agriculture, with an emphasis on Agrobit, AgTech, SAP, and #DigitalTransformation, as well as sustainability, precision agriculture, and smart technologies. They also reflect the relevance of events and training in disseminating innovative solutions in the agro-industrial sector.

• Feelings generated

Analysis of the sentiment of the publications shows a predominance of neutral perceptions, with nine cases reflecting clear and objective information on technology and agro-industrial management. However, eight publications generate positive sentiment, highlighting innovation, efficiency, and sustainability, while no negative reactions are recorded, indicating a favourable and trustworthy reception of the content.

The YouTube data reveal a platform with significant unrealised potential within the sample. Agrobit’s relative leadership—91 followers, 12 posts, and content centred on digitisation success stories, sustainability certifications, and sector events such as CDA 2025—points to a use of the platform that is closer to the substantive legitimacy register than any other channel analysed, with the partial exception of ZoomAgri on X. The documentation of concrete outcomes (platform adoption by over 250 companies, 2BS sustainability certification, and SAP partnership) constitutes verifiable evidence of organisational performance, precisely the type of content that the conceptual model identifies as necessary to bridge the gap between declarative and substantive legitimacy. The predominantly positive sentiment of Agrobit’s publications (8 out of 17 generating positive reactions, zero negative) further suggests that substantive content need not sacrifice emotional resonance. However, the near-total absence of YouTube activity among the remaining start-ups—several with no posts at all during the period analysed—indicates that this legitimacy-building potential is recognised by very few companies in the sample. Qualitatively, the content that performs best on YouTube across the sample combines technical demonstration (drones, sensors, and automation) with narrative framing (success stories, event participation), suggesting that the most effective approach integrates the substantive and cognitive registers rather than choosing between them. This integration, largely absent from the other platforms analysed, represents the most sophisticated communication strategy observed in the sample and warrants attention as a model for sector-wide practice.

3.3.5. Facebook

Appendix A2 offers a more detailed examination of the subject. Companies with a Facebook profile (eight) represent 47% of all the start-ups analysed. Consentio’s account has the highest number of followers (232), but it has not posted anything during the period analysed.

Andajuicya, meanwhile, has the highest number of posts (142), likes (1100), comments (433), and the number of times its posts have been shared (189), which have been shared on pages related to the tourism and gastronomy sector in the geographical area where the start-up is located.

One of the parameters to consider for social media management is that they are active and to verify that the links on the website that redirect to them are working. During the period analysed, no posts were made on the Consentio, ZoomAgri, Ekonoke, and Gastroapp accounts.

In the case of Agrobit, the icon on its website linking to its Facebook account redirects to the company’s website itself and not to its Facebook account, which was searched personally in the social network but not found.

• The best times and days to post

Posts on Facebook have been made from Monday to Sunday: Monday was the day with the highest number of activities between 6:00 and 10:00, followed by Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday between 8:00 and 14:00.

As for the days when there is a decrease in posting, these are Monday at 8:00 p.m., Tuesday at 11:00 p.m., and Friday at 6:00 a.m.

• Top 10 images and videos

Weitec is the company with the most interaction on images posted on Facebook, where employees and interns (Figure 6) are shown collaborating on the company’s solutions related to consulting, design, and the integration of tools and systems for agriculture. It also shows events in which the founders of the initiative have participated and, on the other hand, demonstrates the use and benefits offered by the start-up. These visual representations show the people who make up the organisation, the activities they carry out, and include the solution offered by the start-up.

Andajuicya has a higher interaction rate on post links, where content that has created connections, reactions, and feedback from users is displayed, as they have been asked in a survey what type of product they prefer from the range offered by the company. There has also been interaction and interest when videos are posted that show the step-by-step preparation of the gastronomic products they offer and the recent openings of coffee shops and restaurants where their products can be purchased. For its part, Weitec’s links that have had the most interaction are from posts where they appear on a television channel talking about their initiative.

• Top 50 words and hashtags

The words that appear most frequently in the publications refer to the geographical location of the start-ups, with the names of the cities of Málaga, Cártama, and Alhaurín appearing most often. On the other hand, words such as ‘our’ and ‘improvements’ are included in this ranking and denote proximity, closeness, optimisation, and progress.

The interaction rate with trending tags or hashtags focuses on sectors related to the initiatives and types of solutions offered by the start-ups analysed, including: #HORECA, #Restauración, #Hostelería, #TecnologíaAgrícola, and #RealFood. These hashtags provide users or interested parties with direct access to grouped information related to their search.

• Feelings generated

Facebook posts are mostly positive, with more than half of them (70%) expressing feelings of happiness. Meanwhile, 20% of posts are neutral, and 10% of posts are negative.

The Facebook data illustrate a platform in structural decline within the start-up communication ecosystem yet one that retains localised relevance for consumer-facing companies with strong territorial roots. Andajuicya’s dominance across all activity metrics—142 posts, 1100 likes, 433 comments, and 189 shares—is inseparable from its geographical anchoring in Málaga and its integration into local tourism and gastronomy networks: the most shared content circulates precisely within those community pages, indicating that Facebook’s remaining legitimacy-building function for these start-ups is hyperlocal rather than sectoral. This community-oriented dynamic is consistent with the cognitive legitimacy register—generating recognition and affective proximity within a defined territory—but offers limited scalability as a substantive legitimacy mechanism. The qualitative analysis reinforces this reading: the most engaging content across the platform combines human faces (team members, founders, and interns at Weitec), product experience (Andajuicya’s step-by-step preparation videos), and local event visibility—all of which build relational trust rather than verifiable accountability. The high proportion of positive sentiment (70%) further confirms the emotional, community-oriented nature of Facebook communication in this sample. Conversely, the inactive accounts of Consentio, ZoomAgri, Ekonoke, and GastroApp—and Agrobit’s broken link redirecting to its own website—represent a compounded legitimacy risk: not only do these start-ups fail to build any form of legitimacy through the channel, but the technical failures signal a lack of organisational attention that can actively damage credibility among audiences who encounter them.

3.3.6. LinkedIn

LinkedIn is the social network where the vast majority of the start-ups analysed have a presence, and it is the go-to platform for professional networking. Only in the case of Gastroapp does it state that it is ‘not available’ when searching for its account on this platform.

ZoomAgri is distinguished by its substantial following of 15,000 individuals, while Weitec has the most extensive collection of posts (64), the highest number of likes (1414), and the most active comments (86). Agrobit stands out for its role as the account with the most shared posts, having shared a total of 100 posts.

One of the noteworthy aspects of this social media platform is that emerging companies in the Agrotech and Foodtech sectors use LinkedIn as a digital showcase to give their brand reach among stakeholders, focusing on investors. Most of the posts focus on events where the founders of the start-ups give talks and where their brand is present through stands at trade fairs and conferences; those activities are a meeting point for investors, institutions and technological initiatives. Some posts include job offers at the start-up and share posts done by founders and employees from their personal accounts where they talk about the start-up and use hashtags with the company’s name, words related to the sector, geographical location, the solution they offer, and their product or service.

In terms of its publication format, the video stands out due to its dynamism, interactivity, and intimacy. It presents the founder in close-up as they discuss the solutions offered by the start-up (Figure 7). The company logo and the event atmosphere are shown, and subtitles containing keywords are added. This type of audiovisual content increases the reach of the communication strategy in terms of views and information retention by users. It is a tool used to humanise the company and promote the founder’s personal branding. The founder is presented as an authority figure and expert on topics related to the company, factors that generate conversation, engagement, and brand positioning.

It should be noted that these publications have been written in a variety of languages, including Spanish, English, French, and Portuguese, depending on the country in which the event took place. The message is adapted to the location in which the start-up company operates, which positively impacts the ability to reach the target audience.

LinkedIn emerges from the analysis as the strategically pivotal platform in the sample, and the one where the relationship between communication behaviour and legitimacy construction is most theoretically consequential. ZoomAgri’s 15,000 followers represent an order of magnitude above any other platform presence in the sample, confirming LinkedIn’s function as the primary professional showcase for investor and institutional audiences—precisely those whose evaluation of organisational credibility determines access to capital and strategic partnerships (Dorfleitner et al., 2018; Piazza et al., 2023). Weitec’s leadership in posting activity (64 posts), likes (1414), and comments (86), combined with Agrobit’s 100 shared posts, suggests that the most active companies have internalised the platform’s logic of continuous professional visibility. Qualitatively, however, the most significant finding concerns the role of the founder as the primary content vehicle. Across the sample, the highest-performing LinkedIn content systematically features the CEO or founder in video format—speaking at events, presenting the start-up’s value proposition, and engaging with sector audiences in multiple languages—rather than the organisation communicating institutionally. This pattern constitutes empirical support for the conceptual model’s proposition that, in contexts of institutional resource scarcity, the CEO’s communicative role functions as a personal legitimacy signal that partially compensates for the absence of formal transparency mechanisms. The founder’s visible expertise, public engagement, and narrative authority serve as proxies for organisational credibility that the start-up itself cannot yet provide through structural means such as audited accounts, governance reports, or verified impact data. This finding extends Men’s (2021) model of CEO communicative leadership beyond internal trust-building to encompass an external legitimation function specific to the early-stage venture context and suggests that personal branding and institutional accountability should be understood not as alternatives but as sequential strategies: The former is dominant in the earliest phases, the latter is progressively necessary as the organisation matures and substantive legitimacy criteria become harder to defer (Figure 8).

4. Discussion

The results obtained confirm and add nuance to the legitimacy framework proposed by Suchman (1995) and operationalised for start-ups by Zimmerman and Zeitz (2002): the majority of the companies analysed construct cognitive legitimacy—they are recognisable and present their mission and values—but fall short of substantive legitimacy, as they do not provide verifiable data on performance, governance, or social impact that would enable audiences to make informed decisions. This distinction, proposed in the theoretical framework as central to understanding start-up communication, thus finds empirical confirmation in a sector—the agri-food sector—where the social and regulatory stakes amplify the consequences of that gap. Furthermore, the differentiated use of channels observed across the sample extends the model put forward by Hallahan et al. (2007): rather than a single coherent strategic communication, these start-ups deploy platform-specific logics—professional and investor-oriented on LinkedIn, reach and social proof on Instagram and TikTok, and technical authority on X and YouTube—in a manner consistent with the iterative, resource-constrained strategies described by Rudeloff et al. (2022b). The most significant original contribution of this study lies in demonstrating that, in contexts of institutional resource scarcity, the CEO’s communicative role on LinkedIn partially compensates for the absence of formal transparency mechanisms, functioning as a personal legitimacy signal that the organisation itself is unable to provide through structural means.

The results reveal a systematic pattern that can be summarised as follows: the start-ups analysed consistently invest in cognitive legitimacy—constructing recognisable identities through mission statements, visual coherence, and narrative presence across digital channels—while substantive legitimacy remains structurally underdeveloped across the entire sample. This pattern is not incidental but reflects a rational response to the constraints of the liability of newness (Stinchcombe, 1965): in the absence of an established track record, declarative communication is the lowest-cost legitimacy strategy available. However, this rationality generates a compounding problem. Audiences in high-sensitivity sectors such as agri-food—where food safety, environmental impact, and regulatory compliance are salient concerns—apply substantive criteria more stringently than in other domains. The result is a legitimacy gap that is structurally produced by the combination of start-up resource constraints and sector-specific audience expectations. The mechanism underlying this gap is therefore not communicative incompetence but strategic prioritisation under scarcity: These companies are doing what they can with what they have, but what they can do is insufficient to meet the substantive legitimacy threshold that their sector demands. This distinction between incapacity and constrained rationality is analytically important because it points to different intervention logics: the solution is not simply better communication but the progressive integration of accountability mechanisms into the communication infrastructure itself.

The founder’s communicative leadership, especially on LinkedIn, has been demonstrated to help compensate for this lack of institutional legitimacy. This is due to the fact that the figure of the entrepreneur takes on a symbolic role that provides meaning, credibility, and strategic direction in the early stages of reputation building (Rode & Vallaster, 2005; Men, 2021).

Conversely, the absence of transparency exhibited by these entities suggests a discrepancy between their professed principles and their actual capabilities, thereby undermining, to a certain extent, their perceived legitimacy, a prerequisite for expanding their operations. According to the works of Dorfleitner et al. (2018) and Piazza et al. (2023), it is imperative to acknowledge the significance of accountability for key metrics, financing, and major milestones in the context of start-ups. This is crucial for the facilitation of relationships with customers and investors. This assertion underscores the necessity for start-ups to transition from narrative practices to systematic mechanisms of communicative accountability. This transition involves the integration of transparency into the design of the web hub itself (Teadi, 2023). Such integration is considered an essential element for the construction of credibility and the generation of trust (Herrero, 2021; Hoang & Böckel, 2024).

Beyond the general legitimacy gap, the results reveal a second systematic pattern: rather than deploying a unified strategic communication strategy, the start-ups in the sample operate with platform-specific legitimacy logics that are functionally differentiated and internally coherent. This finding extends the model proposed by Hallahan et al. (2007) by demonstrating that, in resource-constrained contexts, strategic communication is not a single coherent programme but a portfolio of platform adaptations, each targeting a distinct audience and serving a distinct legitimacy function. The evidence supports a four-way typology. First, LinkedIn functions as a professional and investor legitimacy channel: ZoomAgri’s 15,000 followers and Weitec’s 1414 likes reflect an audience of institutional stakeholders for whom organisational credibility is evaluated through sector expertise, event participation, and founder visibility. Second, Instagram and TikTok operate as cognitive legitimacy channels through social proof and reach: Gloop’s 2191 likes on a single TikTok post and Andajuicya’s sustained Facebook and Instagram engagement are driven by emotional content—humour, sensory experience, and novelty—that builds recognition without making verifiable claims. Third, X and YouTube serve as technical authority channels, approximating substantive legitimacy through the demonstration of sector expertise: ZoomAgri’s regulatory engagement on X and Agrobit’s documentation of concrete outcomes on YouTube (250+ client companies, sustainability certification) are the closest instances in the sample to verifiable performance evidence. Fourth, Facebook operates as a hyperlocal community legitimacy channel, relevant only for consumer-facing start-ups with strong territorial roots, as Andajuicya’s circulation within Málaga gastronomy networks illustrates. This typology is not merely descriptive: it identifies which platform logics are capable of contributing to substantive legitimacy (X, YouTube) and which are structurally limited to the cognitive register (Instagram, TikTok, and Facebook), with LinkedIn occupying an intermediate position that critically depends on the quality and consistency of founder communication.

Empirical evidence corroborates studies demonstrating how the utilisation of native resources, milestone storytelling, and dialogic practices (responses, co-creation, and interaction) enhance identification and advocacy (Z. F. Chen et al., 2023; Rudeloff et al., 2022b). However, the presence of uneven activity and inactivity on certain accounts highlights the inherent limitations of iterative strategies when confronted with limited resources.

The role of the CEO as a spokesperson in video and multilingual communications on LinkedIn corroborates models that understand communicative leadership as an enabler of internal trust, employer branding, and social capital (Men, 2021; Yue et al., 2019).

The findings of this study suggest several concrete directions for improving the digital communication strategy of agri-food start-ups operating under resource constraints. First, the evidence points to a sequenced approach to legitimacy building: in the earliest stages, cognitive legitimacy through narrative identity and platform-specific content is both rational and necessary, but it should be complemented as early as possible by at least minimal substantive signals—a dedicated transparency section on the website disclosing funding milestones, key clients, or impact metrics—that reduce audience uncertainty without requiring full institutional accountability infrastructure. Second, the CEO’s communicative role on LinkedIn emerges from the data as a high-return, low-cost legitimacy mechanism. The founder’s visible engagement—video presentations at sector events, multilingual posts adapting the message to international audiences, and public participation in regulatory and technical debates—functions as a personal legitimacy signal that compensates for the absence of formal transparency mechanisms (Men, 2021; Rode & Vallaster, 2005). Start-ups that have not yet systematised this practice would benefit from treating founder communication on LinkedIn not as personal branding but as a core component of their institutional legitimacy strategy. Third, the platform typology identified in this study suggests that resource-constrained start-ups should resist the temptation of nominal presence across all channels—as the inactive or technically broken accounts in the sample illustrate, a dormant presence actively damages credibility—and instead concentrate efforts on the platforms most aligned with their legitimacy needs: LinkedIn and X or YouTube for Agrotech companies targeting institutional and investor audiences; Instagram and LinkedIn for Foodtech companies balancing consumer reach with professional credibility. Finally, the website should be repositioned not merely as an information repository but as the accountability hub of the digital communication mix, integrating the transparency data that social media platforms cannot credibly host, and ensuring that all outbound links to social profiles are functional and actively maintained.

Taken together, the findings of this study make three theoretically grounded contributions to the literature on strategic communication in start-ups. First, the legitimacy gap—defined here as the systematic distance between cognitive legitimacy, constructed through declarative identity, and substantive legitimacy, requiring verifiable evidence of performance and governance—is empirically demonstrated rather than merely asserted: only 2 of 17 start-ups disclose governance or impact data, against the 11 that clearly communicate their mission and values, yielding a ratio of 1:6 that quantifies the gap and anchors it in sector-specific data. This finding confirms and extends Suchman’s (1995) framework by showing that the gap is not random but structurally produced by the combination of resource scarcity and high-sensitivity sector demands, a mechanism not previously specified in the start-up communication literature. Second, the platform-specific communication typology developed from the data—LinkedIn and X/YouTube as substantive or quasi-substantive legitimacy channels, Instagram and TikTok as cognitive legitimacy channels, and Facebook as a hyperlocal community channel—extends Hallahan et al.’s (2007) strategic communication model by demonstrating that resource-constrained organisations do not deploy unified strategies but functionally differentiated platform portfolios, each serving a distinct legitimacy function for a distinct audience. Third, the CEO as legitimacy signal contribution is grounded in systematic qualitative evidence: across the sample, the highest-performing LinkedIn content consistently features the founder in video format engaging with sector audiences, demonstrating that personal communicative leadership functions as an institutional proxy in contexts where formal accountability mechanisms are absent. This finding extends Men’s (2021) internal trust-building model to encompass an external legitimation function specific to early-stage ventures and suggests that personal branding and structural accountability should be understood as sequential rather than alternative strategies. Together, these three contributions offer a theoretically integrated account of how agri-food start-ups navigate the tension between communicative necessity and resource scarcity and open future lines of research on the conditions under which substantive legitimacy becomes non-deferrable—that is, the threshold beyond which cognitive legitimacy alone is insufficient to sustain organisational growth.

5. Conclusions

The findings of the study demonstrate a partial congruence between the corporate identity as professed on the websites of Spanish agri-food start-ups and the prevailing criteria for substantive legitimacy. The majority of the companies analysed explicitly articulate their mission, vision, and values and maintain their websites with reasonable currency in an effort to define and structure their brand. However, a paucity of transparency is evident, with merely two entities explicitly disclosing data pertaining to financing, social impact, or governance. Meanwhile, five entities provide partial disclosures, and six make only minimal declarations. This information is of significance to customers and investors; therefore, it is an aspect that should be rectified.

This communication deficit is further compounded by cross-channel inconsistencies (non-operational links to networks, linguistic mix-ups, and usability failures) that erode narrative coherence and hinder the user experience. The company website serves as the primary conduit for the organisation’s communication strategy, and it is imperative that it is utilised to disseminate information to associated channels. Advancements have been observed in the domains of structure and readability. However, deficiencies in the accessibility of financial data compromise its function as a reliable reference point for the general public.

In the context of social media, communication behaviour is characterised by selectivity and pragmatism, which are hallmarks of strategies that operate within the constraints of limited resources. LinkedIn functions as the primary professional and investor showcase, with a prominent presence of the founder; Instagram and TikTok serve as platforms for reach, creativity, and social proof; while X and YouTube are employed to establish technical authority through regulatory content or use cases. The level of activity and engagement exhibited by start-ups and platforms is subject to significant variation, with optimal time windows indicating the presence of analytical learning processes.

The findings indicate that the legitimacy of these start-ups is contingent on the combination of their stated identity with verifiable transparency practices, the professionalisation of the website as a hub, and the development of narrative portfolios consistent with the logic of each platform, articulating technical authority with social notoriety. Despite the limited financial resources available to nascent businesses in their early stages, they are able to allocate greater attention to communication on their own channels because these channels serve as their primary means of promotion. This is facilitated by the provision of training and support from professionals. There are a variety of methods by which these costs may be covered, including the allocation of a percentage share of a project or the temporary engagement of a communications agency.

From a theoretical standpoint, this study confirms the utility of the legitimacy framework as an analytical lens for evaluating the digital communication of start-ups and suggests that, in sectors of high social sensitivity—such as the agri-food sector—the gap between declarative and substantive legitimacy is particularly pronounced. The findings extend the strategic communication model proposed by Hallahan et al. (2007) by demonstrating how, in resource-constrained contexts, start-ups deploy differentiated platform logics rather than a unified strategy and how the communicative role of the entrepreneur functions as a legitimacy signal that compensates for institutional transparency deficits (Men, 2021; Rode & Vallaster, 2005). These findings open future lines of research on the role of digital transparency as a mediating variable between communication strategy and organisational survival and on the conditions under which personal branding can substitute for—or must be complemented by—structural accountability mechanisms.