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Volume 8
Issue 12
10.3390/heritage8120506
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Article

Integrated Comprehensive Characterization of Black Crusts from Milan’s Monumental Cemetery: A Synergistic Approach Combining Conventional and Unconventional Analytical Techniques

by
Andrea Bergomi
1,*,
Valeria Comite
1,
Mattia Borelli
1,
Chiara Andrea Lombardi
1,
Elisa Festa
1,
Mohamed Oujja
2,
Marta Castillejo
2,
Laura Maestro-Guijarro
2,3,
Paula Maria Carmona-Quiroga
4,
Ana Crespo
5,
Michela Pirovano
6 and
Paola Fermo
1
1
Department of Chemistry, University of Milan, Via Golgi 19, 20133 Milan, Italy
2
Instituto de Quimica Fisica Blas Cabrera, IQF-CSIC, C/Serrano 119, 28006 Madrid, Spain
3
Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Pl. de las Ciencias, 2, 28040 Madrid, Spain
4
Instituto de Ciencias de la Construcción Eduardo Torroja, IETcc-CSIC, C/ Serrano Galvache 4, 28033 Madrid, Spain
5
Instituto de Estructura de la Materia, IEM-CSIC, C/Serrano 121, 28006 Madrid, Spain
6
Department of Chemistry, University of Bologna, Via Francesco Selmi, 2, 40126 Bologna, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Heritage 2025, 8(12), 506; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8120506 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 3 October 2025 / Revised: 21 November 2025 / Accepted: 27 November 2025 / Published: 1 December 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue History, Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage)
Versions Notes

Abstract

Black crusts are degradation features found on stone buildings, offering valuable insights into local pollution sources. Their composition and structure reflect environmental conditions, making them important indicators for environmental and conservation studies. In this study, black crusts collected from funerary monuments in the Monumental Cemetery of Milan were comprehensively characterized using SEM-EDX, Raman spectroscopy, LIBS, and oxidative potential (OP) assays. SEM-EDX and Raman spectroscopy revealed extensive degradation of the substrate and the incorporation of pollutant-derived particles, with heavy metals such as Fe, Zn, and Pb detected in more than 90% of the samples. Correlation analysis proved effective in distinguishing major pollution sources, primarily vehicular and railway traffic, indicated by strong associations such as Zn–Mn (r = 0.896), Fe–Zn (r = 0.734), and Fe–Mn (r = 0.655), from minor sources linked to industrial emissions, reflected in correlations including Ti–Pb (r = 0.589), Pb–Cl (r = 0.702), and S–Pb (r = 0.661). Instead, LIBS analysis confirmed stratigraphic penetration of these elements beyond the surface layers, suggesting long-term accumulation. OP assays, applied here for the first time to black crusts, showed values between 0.5 and 3.0 pmol min−1 µg−1, indicating moderate oxidative reactivity linked to metal content. Overall, the findings contribute to a deeper understanding of pollution-driven stone decay and support the development of more effective diagnostic and conservation strategies.
Keywords: cultural heritage; funerary monuments; degradation; LIBS; oxidative potential cultural heritage; funerary monuments; degradation; LIBS; oxidative potential

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MDPI and ACS Style

Bergomi, A.; Comite, V.; Borelli, M.; Lombardi, C.A.; Festa, E.; Oujja, M.; Castillejo, M.; Maestro-Guijarro, L.; Carmona-Quiroga, P.M.; Crespo, A.; et al. Integrated Comprehensive Characterization of Black Crusts from Milan’s Monumental Cemetery: A Synergistic Approach Combining Conventional and Unconventional Analytical Techniques. Heritage 2025, 8, 506. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8120506

AMA Style

Bergomi A, Comite V, Borelli M, Lombardi CA, Festa E, Oujja M, Castillejo M, Maestro-Guijarro L, Carmona-Quiroga PM, Crespo A, et al. Integrated Comprehensive Characterization of Black Crusts from Milan’s Monumental Cemetery: A Synergistic Approach Combining Conventional and Unconventional Analytical Techniques. Heritage. 2025; 8(12):506. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8120506

Chicago/Turabian Style

Bergomi, Andrea, Valeria Comite, Mattia Borelli, Chiara Andrea Lombardi, Elisa Festa, Mohamed Oujja, Marta Castillejo, Laura Maestro-Guijarro, Paula Maria Carmona-Quiroga, Ana Crespo, and et al. 2025. "Integrated Comprehensive Characterization of Black Crusts from Milan’s Monumental Cemetery: A Synergistic Approach Combining Conventional and Unconventional Analytical Techniques" Heritage 8, no. 12: 506. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8120506

APA Style

Bergomi, A., Comite, V., Borelli, M., Lombardi, C. A., Festa, E., Oujja, M., Castillejo, M., Maestro-Guijarro, L., Carmona-Quiroga, P. M., Crespo, A., Pirovano, M., & Fermo, P. (2025). Integrated Comprehensive Characterization of Black Crusts from Milan’s Monumental Cemetery: A Synergistic Approach Combining Conventional and Unconventional Analytical Techniques. Heritage, 8(12), 506. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8120506

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