Low Tree Vigor, Free Palmette Training Form, and High Planting Density Increase Olive and Oil Yield Efficiency in Dry, Sloping Areas of Mediterranean Regions
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Plant Material and Experimental Conditions
2.2. Experiment Layout and Measurements
2.3. Olive Oil Standard Quality
2.4. Phenol Compounds
2.5. Volatile Compounds
2.6. Data Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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System | Cultivar | Canopy Volume (m3) | Growth Efficiency (m3 cm−2 TCSA) | Canopy Surface (m2) | S/V | Canopy/Soil Surf. | Prunings (kg) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CLx2 | Abunara | 19.1 | 0.112 | 21.4 | 1.21 | 2.14 | 8.94 |
Calatina | 13.8 | 0.148 | 16.1 | 1.25 | 1.61 | 4.43 | |
Nocellara | 14.4 | 0.108 | 15.9 | 1.18 | 1.59 | 5.98 | |
FPx3 | Abunara | 20.4 | 0.111 | 20.9 | 1.12 | 1.40 | 11.0 |
Calatina | 16.6 | 0.182 | 20.1 | 1.36 | 1.34 | 4.44 | |
Nocellara | 20.2 | 0.119 | 22.6 | 1.19 | 1.50 | 7.53 | |
GVx4 | Abunara | 21.5 | 0.104 | 27.6 | 1.27 | 1.38 | 9.02 |
Calatina | 14.5 | 0.134 | 20.8 | 1.48 | 1.04 | 4.80 | |
Nocellara | 19.6 | 0.099 | 25.8 | 1.31 | 1.29 | 10.8 | |
PVx5 | Abunara | 23.1 | 0.110 | 29.0 | 1.25 | 1.16 | 11.0 |
Calatina | 18.7 | 0.135 | 25.0 | 1.35 | 1.00 | 8.63 | |
Nocellara | 28.0 | 0.116 | 32.5 | 1.16 | 1.30 | 8.71 | |
Tukey HSD(α < 0.05) | 3.46 | 0.030 | 4.80 | 0.20 | 0.02 | 5.72 |
Cultivar | Acidity (%) | Peroxide Value (meq O2 kg−1 Oil) | K232 | K270 | ∆K |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2020 | |||||
Abunara | 0.28 ± 0.02 a z | 3.7 ± 0.2 a | 1.60 ± 0.11 a | 0.09 ± 0.005 b | −0.002 ± 0.0001 b |
Calatina | 0.27 ± 0.01 a | 3.5 ± 0.2 a | 1.74 ± 0.06 a | 0.11 ± 0.004 a | −0.004 ± 0.0003 a |
Nocellara | 0.30 ± 0.02 a | 3.7 ± 0.2 a | 1.55 ± 0.05 a | 0.09 ± 0.005b | −0.001 ± 0.0001 c |
2021 | |||||
Abunara | 0.19 ± 0.03 a | 5.1 ± 0.2 a | 1.60 ± 0.10 a | 0.11 ± 0.010 a | −0.001 ± 0.0005 b |
Calatina | 0.22 ± 0.02 a | 4.9 ± 0.4 a | 1.60 ± 0.05 a | 0.12 ± 0.009 a | −0.003 ± 0.0003 a |
Nocellara | 0.25 ± 0.01 a | 2.7 ± 0.2 b | 1.47 ± 0.03 a | 0.10 ± 0.013 a | −0.003 ± 0.0010 a |
Abunara | Calatina | Nocellara | |
---|---|---|---|
2020 | |||
Myristic (C14:0) | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
Palmitic (C16:0) | 13.74 ± 0.05 a z | 9.57 ± 0.09 c | 10.70 ± 0.02 b |
Palmitoleic (C16:1) | 1.17 ± 0.004 a | 0.30 ± 0.007 c | 0.49 ± 0.001 b |
Margaric (C17:0) | 0.11 ± 0.0021 a | 0.04 ± 0.0009 b | 0.04 ± 0.0002 b |
Margaroleic (C17:1) | 0.23 ± 0.023 a | 0.05 ± 0.0003 b | 0.06 ± 0.0098 b |
Stearic (C18:0) | 3.23 ± 0.01 b | 3.40 ± 0.016 a | 3.35 ± 0.03 a |
Oleic (C18:1 ω-9) | 69.24 ± 0.128 c | 76.53 ± 0.02 a | 71.55 ± 0.031 b |
Linoleic (C18:2 ω-6) | 10.63 ± 0.038 b | 8.51 ± 0.058 c | 12.24 ± 0.002 a |
Linolenic(C18:3 ω-3) | 0.84 ± 0.031 a | 0.68 ± 0.025 b | 0.66 ± 0.032 b |
Arachidic (C20:0) | 0.47 ± 0.001 a | 0.47 ± 0.002 a | 0.47 ± 0.004 a |
Eicosenoic (C20:1) | 0.29 ± 0.021 b | 0.40 ± 0.02 a | 0.37 ± 0.033 ab |
Behenic (C22:0) | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
Lignoceric (C24:0) | 0.06 ± 0.001 a | 0.05 ± 0.002 a | 0.054 ± 0.004 a |
SFA | 17.61 ± 0.05 a | 13.53 ± 0.09 c | 14.62 ± 0.04 b |
MUFA | 70.92 ± 0.13 c | 77.28 ± 0.03 a | 72.48 ± 0.05 b |
PUFA | 11.47 ± 0.05 b | 9.19 ± 0.06 c | 12.90 ± 0.03 a |
2021 | |||
Myristic (C14:0) | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
Palmitic (C16:0) | 12.27 ± 0.02 ab | 10.22 ± 0.97 b | 12.72 ± 0.19 a |
Palmitoleic (C16:1) | 0.61 ± 0.009 b | 0.30 ± 0.03 c | 0.92 ± 0.02 a |
Heptadecanoic (C17:0) | 0.09 ± 0.001 b | 0.06 ± 0.02 b | 0.30 ± 0.005 a |
Heptadecenoic (C17:1) | 0.12 ± 0.005 b | 0.15 ± 0.005 a | 0.08 ± 0.002 c |
Stearic (C18:0) | 2.96 ± 0.01 b | 2.99 ± 0.004 b | 4.14 ± 0.01 a |
Oleic (C18:1 ω-9) | 71.37 ± 0.11 b | 73.50 ± 0.02 a | 69.76 ± 0.34 c |
Linoleic (C18:2 ω-6) | 10.92 ± 0.14 ab | 11.10 ± 0.22 a | 10.38 ± 0.11 b |
Linolenic(C18:3 ω-3) | 0.81 ± 0.02 a | 0.76 ± 0.06 a | 0.87 ± 0.01 a |
Arachidic (C20:0) | 0.42 ± 0.002 b | 0.40 ± 0.006 b | 0.53 ± 0.001 a |
Eicosenoic (C20:1) | 0.35 ± 0.02 b | 0.45 ± 0.005 a | 0.29 ± 0.02 c |
Behenic (C22:0) | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
Lignoceric (C24:0) | 0.09 ± 0.004 a | 0.07 ± 0.006 a | n.d. |
SFA | 15.82 ± 0.03 ab | 13.75 ± 0.97 b | 17.70 ± 0.19 a |
MUFA | 72.45 ± 0.11 b | 74.39 ± 0.04 a | 71.05 ± 0.35 c |
PUFA | 11.73 ± 0.14 a | 11.87 ± 0.22 a | 11.25 ± 0.11 a |
Abunara | Calatina | Nocellara | |
---|---|---|---|
2020 | |||
3,4-DHPEA | 12.8 ± 0.1 c z | 22.1 ± 0.1 b | 23.5 ± 0.03 a |
p-HPEA | 5.0 ± 0.1 c | 8.5 ± 0.1 b | 11.6 ± 0.01 a |
Vanillic acid | 0.3 ± 0.02 a | 0.2 ± 0.009 b | 0.1 ± 0.005 c |
p-Cumaric acid | 0.8 ± 0.02 a | 0.5 ± 0.04 a | 0.5 ± 0.45 a |
3,4-DHPEA-EDA | 274 ± 2.8 c | 349 ± 0.4 a | 297 ± 0.7 b |
p-HPEA-EDA | 35.4 ± 0.4 c | 93.2 ± 0.6 a | 65.2 ± 0.2 b |
(+)-1-Acetoxypinoresinol | 17.0 ± 0.02 b | 15.8 ± 0.003 c | 22.1 ± 0.01 a |
(+)-Pinoresinol | 9.8 ± 0.1 c | 15.9 ± 0.3 a | 11.3 ± 0.2 b |
3,4-DHPEA-EA | 121 ± 1.2 c | 341 ± 7.7 a | 173 ± 0.9 b |
Ligstroside aglycone | 12.9 ± 0.1 c | 41.7 ± 0.8 a | 19.6 ± 0.1 b |
Luteolin | 1.1 ± 0.01 b | 1.7 ± 0.01 a | n.d. |
Apigenin | n.d. | 0.8 ± 0.02 | n.d. |
Total phenols | 490 ± 3.2 c | 890 ± 10.9 a | 624 ± 1.6 b |
Sum of oleuropein derivatives y | 408 ± 3.0 c | 712 ± 7.7 a | 494 ± 1.2 b |
Sum of ligstroside derivatives | 53.3 ± 0.4 c | 143 ± 1.0 a | 96.4 ± 0.2 b |
Sum of lignans | 26.7 ± 0.1 c | 31.6 ± 0.3 b | 33.4 ± 0.2 a |
2021 | |||
3,4-DHPEA | 16.4 ± 0.03 c | 33.7 ± 0.03 b | 47.0 ± 0.05 a |
p-HPEA | 6.30 ± 0.002 c | 11.3 ± 0.01 a | 8.6 ± 0.037 b |
Vanillic acid | 0.40 ± 0.003 b | 0.5 ± 0.0001 a | 0.5 ± 0.007 a |
p-Cumaric acid | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
3,4-DHPEA-EDA | 570 ± 0.8 b | 661 ± 2.1 a | 305 ± 0.90 c |
p-HPEA-EDA | 67.8 ± 0.2 b | 74.6 ± 0.1 a | 33.8 ± 0.02 c |
(+)-1-Acetoxypinoresinol | 20.7 ± 0.02 b | 25.6 ± 0.07 a | 17.1 ± 0.001 c |
(+)-Pinoresinol | 10.9 ± 0.2 b | 14.0 ± 0.02 a | 9.30 ± 0.04 c |
3,4-DHPEA-EA | 40.3 ± 0.3 c | 166 ± 0.4 a | 59.5 ± 0.30 b |
Ligstroside aglycone | 4.20 ± 0.1 b | 20.1 ± 0.1 a | 3.80 ± 0.04 c |
Luteolin | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
Apigenin | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
Total phenols | 737 ± 1.0 b | 1006 ± 2.1 a | 484 ± 1.0 c |
Sum of oleuropein derivatives | 627 ± 0.9 b | 860 ± 2.1 a | 411 ± 0.9 c |
Sum of ligstroside derivatives | 78.3 ± 0.2 b | 106 ± 0.2 a | 46.2 ± 0.1 c |
Sum of lignans | 31.7 ± 0.2 b | 39.6 ± 0.1 a | 26.4 ± 0.04 c |
Abunara | Calatina | Nocellara | |
---|---|---|---|
2020 | |||
Aldehydes | |||
Pentanal | 38 ± 2.0 a z | 38 ± 5.0 a | 30 ± 2.0 a |
(E)-2-Pentenal | 47 ± 5.0 a | 16 ± 2.0 b | 44 ± 2.0 a |
Hexanal | 645 ± 3.0 a | 321 ± 7.0 c | 397 ± 24 b |
(E)-2-Hexenal | 13,537 ± 96 a | 8946 ± 11 b | 8169 ± 52 c |
(E,E)-2,4-Hexadienal | 181 ± 1.0 a | 75 ± 1.0 c | 82 ± 1.0 b |
Sum of the aldehydes at C5 and at C6 | 14,448 ± 96 a | 9396 ± 14 b | 8722 ± 57 c |
Alcohols | |||
1-Pentanol | 446 ± 5.0 a | 356 ± 0.4 b | 309 ± 1.4 c |
1-Penten-3-ol | 137 ± 3.0 a | 69 ± 4.0 c | 85 ± 2.0 b |
(E)-2-Penten-1-ol | 59 ± 1.0 a | 61 ± 1.0 a | 55 ± 0.1 b |
(Z)-2-Penten-1-ol | 473 ± 4.0 a | 296 ± 5.0 b | 312 ± 2.0 b |
1-Hexanol | 1948 ± 4.0 a | 482 ± 6.0 c | 652 ± 0.1 b |
(E)-2-Hexen-1-ol | 523 ± 2.0 b | 915 ± 23 a | 318 ± 2.0 c |
(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol | 4955 ± 1.0 a | 1694 ± 3.0 b | 1697 ± 16 b |
Sum of alcohols at C5 and at C6 | 8542 ± 10 a | 3875 ± 25 b | 3428 ± 17 c |
Esters | |||
Ethyl acetate | 15 ± 0.5 b | 19 ± 1.0 a | 21 ± 1.0 a |
Hexyl acetate | 230 ± 8.0 b | 448 ± 2.0 a | 137 ± 4.0 c |
(Z)-3-Hexenyl acetate | 1280 ± 24 b | 1699 ± 11 a | 476 ± 10 c |
Sum of esters at C6 | 1510 ± 25 b | 2148 ± 11 a | 613 ± 11 c |
Ketones | |||
3-Pentanone | 991 ± 4.0 a | 458 ± 1.0 c | 584 ± 3.0 b |
1-Penten-3-one | 245 ± 17 a | 145 ± 11 b | 264 ± 4.0 a |
6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one | 11 ± 0.1 b | 19 ± 0.3 a | 19 ± 0.2 a |
Sum of ketones at C5 and at C8 | 1246 ± 17 a | 621 ± 11 c | 868 ± 5.0 b |
2021 | |||
Aldehydes | |||
Pentanal | 27 ± 2.0 b | 30 ± 3.0 b | 51 ± 3.0 a |
(E)-2-Pentenal | 66 ± 2.0 a | 31 ± 0.1 b | 35 ± 2.0 b |
Hexanal | 2253 ± 72 a | 381 ± 11 c | 635 ± 7.0 b |
(E)-2-Hexenal | 6366 ± 49 a | 5029 ± 22 b | 4154 ± 78 c |
(E,E)-2,4-Hexadienal | 471 ± 18 a | 182 ± 5.0 b | 152 ± 2.0 b |
Sum of the aldehydes at C5 and at C6 | 9183 ± 89 a | 5653 ± 25 b | 5027 ± 78 c |
Alcohols | |||
1-Pentanol | 26 ± 2.0 b | 106 ± 2.0 a | 108 ± 1.0 a |
1-Penten-3-ol | 346 ± 3.0 b | 332 ± 2.0 b | 441 ± 2.0 a |
(E)-2-Penten-1-ol | 40 ± 1.0 b | 45 ± 1.0 b | 63 ± 2.0 a |
(Z)-2-Penten-1-ol | 348 ± 2.0 b | 450 ± 4.0 a | 444 ± 15 a |
1-Hexanol | 730 ± 5.0 c | 1301 ± 12 a | 1168 ± 20 b |
(E)-2-Hexen-1-ol | 493 ± 7.0 b | 599 ± 4.0 b | 1264 ± 47 a |
(Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol | 3555 ± 93 b | 6016 ± 105 a | 5448 ± 142 a |
Sum of alcohols at C5 and at C6 | 5538 ± 98 b | 8849 ± 106 a | 8936 ± 152 a |
Esters | |||
Ethyl acetate | 11 ± 1.0 b | 37 ± 2.0 a | 16 ± 2.0 b |
Hexyl acetate | 168 ± 8.0 a | 114 ± 3.0 b | 121 ± 5.0 b |
(Z)-3-Hexenyl acetate | 603 ± 7.0 a | 406 ± 8.0 b | 394 ± 4.0 b |
Sum of esters at C6 | 771 ± 11 a | 520 ± 9.0 b | 515 ± 7.0 b |
Ketones | |||
3-Pentanone | 245 ± 8.0 b | 639 ± 14 a | 588 ± 23 a |
1-Penten-3-one | 358 ± 14 a | 70 ± 5.0 b | 42 ± 3.0 b |
6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one | 13 ± 2.0 a | 10 ± 1.0 a | 13 ± 0.4 a |
Sum of ketones at C5 and at C8 | 616 ± 16 b | 719 ± 15 a | 643 ± 23 ab |
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Massenti, R.; Ioppolo, A.; Veneziani, G.; Selvaggini, R.; Servili, M.; Lo Bianco, R.; Caruso, T. Low Tree Vigor, Free Palmette Training Form, and High Planting Density Increase Olive and Oil Yield Efficiency in Dry, Sloping Areas of Mediterranean Regions. Horticulturae 2022, 8, 817. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8090817
Massenti R, Ioppolo A, Veneziani G, Selvaggini R, Servili M, Lo Bianco R, Caruso T. Low Tree Vigor, Free Palmette Training Form, and High Planting Density Increase Olive and Oil Yield Efficiency in Dry, Sloping Areas of Mediterranean Regions. Horticulturae. 2022; 8(9):817. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8090817
Chicago/Turabian StyleMassenti, Roberto, Antonino Ioppolo, Gianluca Veneziani, Roberto Selvaggini, Maurizio Servili, Riccardo Lo Bianco, and Tiziano Caruso. 2022. "Low Tree Vigor, Free Palmette Training Form, and High Planting Density Increase Olive and Oil Yield Efficiency in Dry, Sloping Areas of Mediterranean Regions" Horticulturae 8, no. 9: 817. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8090817