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Article

Fungal Fermented Palm Kernel Expeller as Feed for Black Soldier Fly Larvae in Producing Protein and Biodiesel

by
Chin Seng Liew
1,
Chung Yiin Wong
1,
Eman A. Abdelfattah
2,
Ratchaprapa Raksasat
1,
Hemamalini Rawindran
1,
Jun Wei Lim
1,*,
Worapon Kiatkittipong
3,*,
Kunlanan Kiatkittipong
4,
Mardawani Mohamad
5,
Peter Nai Yuh Yek
6,7,
Herma Dina Setiabudi
8,
Chin Kui Cheng
9 and
Su Shiung Lam
7,10
1
Department of Fundamental and Applied Sciences, HICoE-Centre for Biofuel and Biochemical Research, Institute of Self-Sustainable Building, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar 32610, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia
2
Entomology Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Cairo 12613, Egypt
3
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Industrial Technology, Silpakorn University, Nakhon Pathom 73000, Thailand
4
Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok 10520, Thailand
5
Faculty of Bioengineering and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Jeli Campus, Jeli 17600, Kelantan, Malaysia
6
Centre for Research of Innovation and Sustainable Development, Department of Engineering and Technology, University College of Technology Sarawak, Sibu 96000, Sarawak, Malaysia
7
Henan Province Engineering Research Center for Biomass Value-Added Products, School of Forestry, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
8
Faculty of Chemical and Process Engineering Technology, College of Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Lebuhraya Tun Razak, Gambang, Kuantan 26300, Pahang, Malaysia
9
Center for Catalysis and Separation (CeCaS), Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 127788, United Arab Emirates
10
Pyrolysis Technology Research Group, Higher Institution Centre of Excellence (HICoE), Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries (AKUATROP), Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus 21030, Terengganu, Malaysia
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Fungi 2022, 8(4), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8040332
Submission received: 17 February 2022 / Revised: 16 March 2022 / Accepted: 21 March 2022 / Published: 23 March 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Opportunities in Fungal Biotechnology)
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Abstract

Being the second-largest country in the production of palm oil, Malaysia has a massive amount of palm kernel expeller (PKE) leftover. For that purpose, black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) are thus employed in this study to valorize the PKE waste. More specifically, this work elucidated the effects of the pre-fermentation of PKE via different amounts of Rhizopus oligosporus to enhance PKE palatability for the feeding of BSFL. The results showed that fermentation successfully enriched the raw PKE and thus contributed to the better growth of BSFL. BSFL grew to be 34% heavier at the optimum inoculum volume of 0.5 mL/10 g dry weight of PKE as compared to the control. Meanwhile, excessive fungal inoculum induced competition between BSFL and R. oligosporus, resulting in a reduction in BSFL weight. Under optimum feeding conditions, BSFL also registered the highest lipid yield (24.7%) and protein yield (44.5%). The biodiesel derived from BSFL lipid had also shown good compliance with the European biodiesel standard EN 14214. The high saturated fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) content (C12:0, C14:0, C16:0) in derived biodiesel made it highly oxidatively stable. Lastly, the superior degradation rate of PKE executed by BSFL further underpinned the sustainable conversion process in attaining valuable larval bioproducts.
Keywords: black soldier fly larvae; palm kernel expeller; Rhizopus oligosporus; fermentation; protein; biodiesel black soldier fly larvae; palm kernel expeller; Rhizopus oligosporus; fermentation; protein; biodiesel

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Liew, C.S.; Wong, C.Y.; Abdelfattah, E.A.; Raksasat, R.; Rawindran, H.; Lim, J.W.; Kiatkittipong, W.; Kiatkittipong, K.; Mohamad, M.; Yek, P.N.Y.; et al. Fungal Fermented Palm Kernel Expeller as Feed for Black Soldier Fly Larvae in Producing Protein and Biodiesel. J. Fungi 2022, 8, 332. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8040332

AMA Style

Liew CS, Wong CY, Abdelfattah EA, Raksasat R, Rawindran H, Lim JW, Kiatkittipong W, Kiatkittipong K, Mohamad M, Yek PNY, et al. Fungal Fermented Palm Kernel Expeller as Feed for Black Soldier Fly Larvae in Producing Protein and Biodiesel. Journal of Fungi. 2022; 8(4):332. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8040332

Chicago/Turabian Style

Liew, Chin Seng, Chung Yiin Wong, Eman A. Abdelfattah, Ratchaprapa Raksasat, Hemamalini Rawindran, Jun Wei Lim, Worapon Kiatkittipong, Kunlanan Kiatkittipong, Mardawani Mohamad, Peter Nai Yuh Yek, and et al. 2022. "Fungal Fermented Palm Kernel Expeller as Feed for Black Soldier Fly Larvae in Producing Protein and Biodiesel" Journal of Fungi 8, no. 4: 332. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8040332

APA Style

Liew, C. S., Wong, C. Y., Abdelfattah, E. A., Raksasat, R., Rawindran, H., Lim, J. W., Kiatkittipong, W., Kiatkittipong, K., Mohamad, M., Yek, P. N. Y., Setiabudi, H. D., Cheng, C. K., & Lam, S. S. (2022). Fungal Fermented Palm Kernel Expeller as Feed for Black Soldier Fly Larvae in Producing Protein and Biodiesel. Journal of Fungi, 8(4), 332. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8040332

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