The Role of Fermentation and Drying on the Changes in Bioactive Properties, Seconder Metabolites, Fatty Acids and Sensory Properties of Green Jalapeño Peppers

Abstract

In this study, the influence of fermentation and different drying techniques on the bioactive components, antioxidant activity, phenolic components, fatty acids, nutrients and sensory characteristics of fresh and processed jalapeño peppers was investigated. At the end of the fermentation, the pH, acidity and salt values of the brine were determined as 3.38, 0.09% and 6.02 g/100 mL, respectively. The oil results of pepper samples were found between 2.0% (microwave and air) and 2.60% (oven). Total carotenoid and total phenolic amounts of fresh (control) and processed peppers (air, conventional, microwave and fermentation) were characterized to be between 3.38 (fermented) and 65.68 µg/g (air) to 45.81 (fermented) and 350.69 mg GAE/100 g (microwave), respectively. Total flavonoid quantities of fresh and processed pepper samples were defined to be between 14.17 (fresh) and 482.74 mg/100 g (microwave). 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid and catechin amounts in fresh and processed jalapeño peppers were defined to be between 0.43 (fermented) and 11.0 mg/100 g (microwave) to 1.36 (fermented) and 44.87 mg/100 g (microwave), respectively. The predominant fatty acids of pepper oils were palmitic, oleic and linoleic acid. The oleic acid amounts of fresh and processed jalapeño pepper oils were specified to be between 9.52% (air drying) and 29.77% (fermented), while the linoleic acid values of pepper oils vary between 10.84% (fermented) and 68.38% (air drying). The major elements of fresh and processed peppers were K, P, S, Ca, Mg, Fe and Zn in decreasing order. Protein amounts in fresh and processed jalapeño peppers were characterized to be between 8.59 (fermented) and 12.22% (oven). As a result of panelist evaluations, the most appreciated features (4.83 score) were the flavor, color and texture feature.

1. Introduction

Pepper fruits are mostly consumed fresh, but they are also used as pickles, pepper paste, canned chopped peppers, and dried or processed ingredients [1,2]. Anaheim (red-type) peppers are mostly consumed fresh or dried, while jalapeño peppers are often consumed fresh and in brine [3]. Peppers, which are a rich source of bioactive components, are used as spices, vegetables and/or medicines [4]. Peppers have been established to be a source of bioactive compounds due to polyphenolic constituents such as provitamins and antioxidant compounds, vitamins A and C, and phenolic compounds. Jalapeños may help a person lose weight considerably by triggering the metabolism, burning fat, and lowering appetite. The rich array of active compounds present in jalapeños, including capsaicin and capsaicinoids, have proven to boost metabolism by 5%, thereby making it easier to shed stubborn fats [3,5]. Phenolic compounds naturally found in many plants are phytochemicals that determine the plant’s properties such as color and taste, and flavonoids and phenolic acids constitute an important part of these phenolic compounds [6]. Dehydration is a thermal process applied after the drying process, as the water in the food is reduced by dehydration and microbial spoilage is prevented. Since many quality differences occur with the drying of foods, it has been reported that drying is considered as a preservation process [7,8].

In recent years, the lactic acid fermentation method has come to the fore; as vegetables gain a different sensory quality in pickle-making, less energy is required compared to other methods, and they are transformed into smaller-molecule compounds. Especially, the fact that peppers gain a pleasant aroma and lose their raw taste has been an important reason for using them as pickles. While the drying method is widely used in the evaluation of peppers, today, it has been replaced by lactic acid fermentation and pickle making [9]. Fermented foods have a characteristic taste and aroma directly or indirectly with microorganisms that play a role in fermentation. Microorganisms that carry out fermentation create an acidic environment in the fermented product and prevent the development of pathogens and spoilage microorganisms [10]. Today, it is possible to encounter fermentation products in all societies with different levels of development. Some of them are universal, while others are limited to countries or regions. However, there is no doubt that there are many fermentation products that have not yet reached the masses and are produced locally [10]. In order to ensure that products in one region can be consumed by people in other regions, food is preserved by various methods and then transferred. Thus, economic losses are reduced, and adequate and balanced nutrition is contributed. Drying and fermentation are the most commonly used preservation methods. By reducing the amount of water in the food to certain levels by various means, an environment that prevents enzymes and microorganisms from working is created. Food fermentation converts sugars and other carbohydrates into alcohol or protective organic acids and carbon dioxide, thus preserving foods for a long time without spoiling. There may be some changes in the composition of the products obtained by drying and fermentation methods. The aim of this study was to reveal the influence of fermentation and different drying techniques on the bioactive compounds, antioxidant activity, phenolic components, fatty acids, nutrients and sensory characteristics of fresh green jalapeño peppers.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Material

Fresh green jalapeño pepper fruits were provided from Mersin (Tarsus) district in Turkey in September 2023. The jalapeño peppers used in this study were obtained from the same location, at the same time, and at the same stage of ripeness. Before processes, the fruits were washed with drinkable top water and the peppers were cut into small pieces of 2 mm thickness.

2.2. Methods

For drying, 2 mm thick sliced jalapeño peppers were placed in a single row on Teflon trays. Heat treatment was carried out in a microwave oven (Arçelik MD 595, TÜRKİYE) at 720 W for 27 min and in a conventional oven (NUVE FN 055, Ankara, TÜRKİYE) at 90 °C for 225 min. The jalapeño samples were dried in the open air in room temperature for 72 h. Regarding the jalapeño pepper fermentation process, after the stems of the jalapeño peppers were cut, they were placed in 3 L glass jars as pickled peppers in a ratio of 2:3 (v/w) and 10% salt water (brine) was added. Fermentation was completed spontaneously in 45 days at 25 °C.

2.2.1. Titratable Acidity, pH and Salt Content

The acidity of the brine was analyzed by titration with 0.1 mol/L NaOH using the phenolphthalein indicator. The pH value and sodium chloride content of the brine were established by pH meter and titration with 0.1 mol/L AgNO₃, respectively [11].

	Fermented Pepper
pH	3.38	±	0.01
Acidity (%)	0.09	±	0.00
Salt content (g/100 mL)	6.02	±	0.08

• ±: standard deviation.

2.2.2. Moisture Amount

The moisture contents of jalapeño peppers were detected at 105 °C using an oven until they reached a constant weight [12].

2.2.3. Protein Analysis

For the protein analysis of jalapeño peppers, it was determined by calculating the nitrogen value using the Kjeldahl (N (Nitrogen) X 6.25) method [12].

2.2.4. Carotenoid Content

Carotenoid extraction of jalapeño pepper samples was carried out in line with the study by Silva da Rocha et al. [13]. The ground sample (2 g) was added to 25 mL of acetone. The mixture was shaken by vortex (DZG SCIENCE MIX 2000 (Turkey)) for 10 min and filtrated using filter paper, followed by taking in a separation funnel. The filtrate was fractionated with 20 mL of petroleum ether and washed with 100 mL of distilled water in order to remove the acetone. These steps were repeated twice. The volume of the extracts was completed to 25 mL by petroleum ether. The absorbance value of each pepper sample was read at 450 nm.

2.2.5. Extraction Procedure

Extracts of jalapeño peppers were obtained by partially modified according to a study by Alam et al. [14]. After mixing 2 g of ground pepper with 20 mL of methanol/water solution (80:20, v/v), it was stored in a water bath at 25 °C for 2 h and the pepper samples were filtered on filter paper. After the solvent in the extract was evaporated under vacuum at 40 °C on an evaporator , the extract was dissolved in 10 mL of methanol/water mixture (80/20, v/v).

2.2.6. Determination of Total Phenol

Total phenolic amounts of jalapeño peppers were analyzed by using Folin–Ciocalteu chemical according to the report recommended by Yoo et al. [15]. The absorbance value of each sample was read at 750 nm. Results were defined as mg gallic acid equivalent/100 g (fw).

2.2.7. Total Flavonoid Content

After adding 0.3 mL of NaNO₂, 0.3 mL of AlCl₃ and 2 mL of NaOH to 1 mL of extract, respectively, the sample was stirred well and stored in the dark for 15 min. The absorbance of the resulting sample was established at 510 nm in a spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, UV mini 1240, Kyoto, Japan). Findings are defined as mg quercetin (QE)/100 g (fw) [16].

2.2.8. Determination of Antioxidant Activity

DPPH Free Radical Scavenging Activity

The free radical scavenging activities of the pepper extracts were measured using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazil according to the study pointed out by Lee et al. [17]. After pre-processing, the absorbance of the samples was read at 517 nm. Results were defined as mmol Trolox (TE)/kg.

Ferric-Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP)

Antioxidant activities of jalapeño peppers were analyzed using the FRAP reagent recommended by Mudenuti et al. [18]. The absorbance value of each pepper sample was then obtained at 595 nm. The results were established as mg Trolox (TE)/g.

2.2.9. Determination of Phenolic Compounds

HPLC (Shimadzu, SCL-10A VP-Shimadzu) equipped with a PDA detector and an Inertsil ODS-3 (5 µm; 4.6 × 250 mm) column was used for chromatographic separation of phenolic compounds of jalapeño pepper extracts. The mobile phase was a mixture of 0.05% acetic acid in water (A) and acetonitrile (B) with the flow rate of 1 mL/min at 30 °C. The injection volume was 20 µL. The peaks were taken at 280 using a PDA detector. The elution program was employed: 0–0.10 min 8% B; 0.10–2 min 10% B; 2–27 min 30% B; 27–37 min 56% B; 37–37.10 min 8% B; 37.10–45 min 8% B. The total running time per sample was 60 min. The identified phenolic compounds were quantified on the basis of their peak area and compared with calibration curves obtained with the corresponding standards and then expressed as mg/100 g of extract.

2.2.10. Oil Contents

After the dried peppers were powdered in a laboratory grinder, 10 g of each sample was weighed and placed in the cartridge. After the cartridges were put in the Soxhlet extractor, the total oil amounts of the jalapeño peppers were obtained with 250 mL petroleum ether in the Soxhlet apparatus for 5 h. Then, the solvent was removed by evaporator at 50 °C and the remaining crude oil was established [12].

2.2.11. Fatty Acid Composition

Fatty acid methyl esters of pepper oil esterified according to Multari et al. [19] were established by gas chromatography (Shimadzu GC-2010, Kyoto, Japan) equipped with a flame ionization detector and capillary column (Tecnocroma TR-CN100, 60 m × 0.25 mm, film thickness: 0.20 µm) for fatty acid composition. An external standard fatty acid methyl ester mixture (Supelco 37 Component FAME Mix) was used to determine sample peaks. The results are given as percentage (%) composition of fatty acid (weight percentage (%) of total fatty acids).

2.2.12. Macro- and Microelement Analysis of Jalapeño Pepper Samples

A quantity of 0.2 g jalapeño pepper samples were separately burned in a microwave device at 210 °C and under 200 PSI pressure by adding 5 mL of concentrated HNO₃ and 2 mL of H₂O₂ (30% w/v). The element contents in the samples were determined by ICP-OES [20].

2.2.13. Sensorial Properties

Ranking test was chosen to evaluate the sensory properties of fermented peppers. To determine the sensory properties of fermented jalapeño peppers, 10 experienced panelists were asked to rate them. The samples presented to the panelists were presented at the same time and all conditions were kept similar throughout the sensory analysis. The panelists taking part in the sensory analysis performed the test on a voluntary basis. Scores: 1 = very bad; 2 = bad; 3 = fair; 4 = good; 5 = very good.

2.3. Statistical Analysis

The JMP statistical program (JMP version 9.0, SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA) was used in the statistical analysis of the results. A statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) was recorded by the analysis of variance (ANOVA) process. Each group was prepared in three replicates and analyses were performed according to this configuration.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Physicochemical and Bioactive Properties of Fermented and Dried Jalapeño Peppers

Physicochemical and bioactive characteristics of fermented and dried jalapeño peppers are depicted in

Table 1. Physicochemical and bioactive properties of jalapeño peppers.

Process	Moisture Content (%)			Carotenoid Content (µg/g)			Oil Content (%)			Total Phenolic Content (mg/100 g)			Total Flavonoid Content (mg/100 g)			Antioxidant Activity (mmol/kg, DPPH)			Antioxidant Activity (mg/g, FRAP)
Fresh (control)	90.37	±	0.09 a *	8.44	±	0.00 d	-			53.35	±	1.49 d	14.17	±	0.41 e	0.44	±	0.01 d	2.41	±	0.44 d
Microwave	4.13	±	0.28 e	61.34	±	0.00 b	2.00	±	0.00 c	350.69	±	5.34 a	482.74	±	9.40 a	3.82	±	0.05 c	27.41	±	1.19 a
Conventional	20.51	±	0.23 c	40.94	±	0.00 c	2.60	±	0.01 a	233.43	±	4.47 c	372.50	±	4.34 c	3.91	±	0.00 a	13.69	±	0.56 c
Fermentation	89.31	±	0.28 b	3.38	±	0.00 e	2.40	±	0.03 b	45.81	±	0.45 e	19.17	±	1.09 d	0.23	±	0.01 e	2.23	±	0.29 d,e
Air drying	6.92	±	0.15 d	65.68	±	0.01 a	2.00	±	0.01 c	259.62	±	2.94 b	386.55	±	8.12 b	3.88	±	0.03 b	17.61	±	1.47 b

* values within each column followed by different letters are significantly different at p < 0.05; ±: standard deviation.

. It was observed that these properties of jalapeño peppers with drying and fermentation exhibited significant changes when compared to the control (fresh pepper). In particular, this change was more clearly detected in the bioactive component and antioxidant properties of peppers. Although there are differences in moisture content, these differences may vary depending on drying norms. At the end of the fermentation, the pH, acidity and salt values of the brine were specified as 3.38, 0.09% and 6.02 g/100 mL, respectively. The moisture results of fresh and processed jalapeño peppers were established between 4.13% (microwave) and 90.37% (fresh (control)). The oil results of pepper samples were found between 2.0% (microwave and air) and 2.60% (oven). In addition, no oil was detected in the fresh pepper sample. Total carotenoid and phenolic contents of fresh (control) and processed jalapeño peppers were defined to be between 3.38 (fermented) and 65.68 µg/g (air) to 45.81 (fermented) and 350.69 mg GAE/100 g (microwave), respectively. Also, total flavonoid values of fresh and processed pepper samples were recorded between 14.17 (fresh) and 482.74 mg/100 g. Antioxidant capacity (DPPH and FRAP) results of pepper samples were characterized to be between 0.23 (fermented) and 3.91 mmol/kg (oven) to 2.23 (air) and 13.69 mg/g (oven), respectively. Significant changes were observed among bioactive properties of fresh and processed jalapeño peppers (p < 0.05). While the highest carotenoid result was established in the air-dried pepper samples, it was followed by microwave, oven fresh and fermented pepper samples in decreasing order. The highest total phenol and flavonoid results were found in the pepper sample dried in the microwave, followed by air drying and oven drying in decreasing order. The antioxidant activities of peppers dried in the microwave and oven systems were higher than in both fresh and other drying methods. These changes are likely due to the treatments applied to the pepper, the growing factors of the pepper, and the processes applied during the analysis. As a result, the physicochemical and bioactive properties of fermented peppers were found to be quite low compared to both fresh and other applied drying processes. This shows that it may have resulted from the destruction of the bioactive components of the peppers due to the biochemical reactions occurring during the fermentation of the peppers. Free radical scavenging activity of the Grande cultivar of jalapeño was described as being as high as 87%, followed by El Dorido (84.1%) [21]. El Dorido and Grande pepper fruits contained 38.4 ± 0.12 and 3.38 ± 0.03 mg/g GAE total phenol, respectively, and these values were found higher compared to other jalapeño cultivars [21]. In another study, the highest total flavonoid content (9.93 mg CE/100 g (dw)dw) of pepper varieties was found in Grande, followed by El Dorido (8.15 mg CE/100 g (dw)) and Sayula in descending order (3.03 mg CE/100 g (dw)) [21]. Ethanol (80%) extracts of jalapeño pepper pericarp and placentas contained 2175 and 2082 mg chlorogenic acid equivalent (CAE)/kg (fw) total phenol, respectively [22]. Total phenol, total flavonoid results and antioxidant capacities of pickled jalapeño were 802 mg GAE/100 g, 389 mg CE/100 g and 2467 molTE/100 g, respectively [3]. Pickled jalapeño pepper fruits contained 8.66 mg CAE/g total phenols and 4.89 QE/g total flavonoids [23]. Different variabilities in our results were observed compared to results of jalapeño peppers grown in the state of Chihuahua (63 mg GAE/100 g (fw)) [24]. Our results regarding the bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity values of jalapeño peppers exhibited some differences with the results of a few previous studies [21,22,23,24]. The fluctuations can be likely due to variety, harvest time, climatic factors, extraction methods, solvent types and some other analytical processes.

3.2. The Phenolics of Fresh, Fermented and Dried Jalapeño Peppers

The phenolic components of fresh, fermented and dried jalapeño peppers are depicted in

Table 2. Phenolic compounds of jalapeño peppers.

Phenolic Compounds (mg/100 g)	Fresh			Microwave			Conventional			Fermentation			Air Drying
Gallic acid	0.38	±	0.02 d *	0.45	±	0.21c	1.10	±	0.36a	0.61	±	0.25 b	0.33	±	0.26e
3,4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid	0.80	±	0.17 d	11.00	±	3.70a	3.43	±	0.57b	0.43	±	0.18 e	1.86	±	0.49c
Catechin	1.51	±	0.80 d	44.87	±	5.63a	16.77	±	4.44b	1.36	±	1.03 e	10.00	±	2.95c
Caffeic acid	0.62	±	0.59 c	3.67	±	1.12a	0.47	±	0.12d	0.13	±	0.04 e	1.31	±	0.42b
Syringic acid	0.78	±	0.74 d	13.23	±	1.75a	2.79	±	1.17b	0.43	±	0.02 e	1.91	±	0.17c
Rutin	0.76	±	0.60 d	38.31	±	4.55a	2.52	±	0.92c	0.23	±	0.04 e	3.82	±	0.38b
p- Coumaric acid	0.04	±	0.01 d	1.58	±	0.73a	0.75	±	0.44b	0.08	±	0.04 d	0.29	±	0.04c
Ferulic acid	0.10	±	0.02 e	2.44	±	0.57c	3.07	±	0.36b	0.28	±	0.01 d	3.67	±	0.22a
Resveratrol	0.07	±	0.05 c	1.05	±	0.56a	0.15	±	0.09b	0.05	±	0.03 cd	0.55	±	0.25b
Quercetin	0.21	±	0.04 d	6.34	±	1.15a	1.90	±	0.23b	0.25	±	0.18 d	1.13	±	0.36c
Cinnamic acid	0.06	±	0.03 de	0.54	±	0.20a	0.07	±	0.03d	0.12	±	0.01 b	0.11	±	0.04bc
Kaempferol	0.13	±	0.05 e	3.52	±	0.18a	1.57	±	0.68b	0.40	±	0.20 c	0.31	±	0.06d

* values within each row followed by different letters are significantly different at p < 0.05; ±: standard deviation.

. The effect of the applied processes on the phenolic compounds of peppers was observed (p < 0.05). 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid and catechin results of fresh and processed jalapeño pepper samples were defined to be between 0.43 (fermented) and 11.0 (microwave) to 1.36 (fermented) and 44.87 mg/100 g (microwave), respectively (Figure 1). While rutin amounts of pepper samples vary between 0.23 (fermented) and 38.31 mg/100 g (microwave), quercetin values of peppers were stated to be between 0.21 (fresh) and 1.05 mg/100 g (microwave). In addition, the quantitative results of the phenolic components of the peppers differed significantly based on the applied treatments. The most abundant phenolic component in all pepper samples was catechin. In general, the highest phenolic constituents were observed in microwave-dried jalapeño pepper samples, while the lowest phenolic component amounts were determined in fermented peppers. This decrease in the phenolic components of fermented peppers is thought to be due to the decrease in the bioactive components of the peppers. Phenolic components of dried jalapeño pepper samples were determined; microwave-dried pepper had the highest value, followed by oven-dried and air-dried pepper samples in decreasing order. It was observed that there was an increase in the values of phenolic components of dried samples when compared to fresh pepper. This increase is likely due to the increase in dry matter amount due to evaporation of water during drying. The reason for the lowest and highest amounts of phenolic compounds may be due to drying types and norms (temperature/time) with different drying characteristics. Because the structures of phenolic components are not damaged much in air drying, it is thought that the structures of phenolic components may be more likely to deform because drying is performed at high temperatures in a short time in microwave and conventional drying types. Jalapeño pepper fruits contained 49.10 gallic acid, 0.20 caffeic acid, 0.20 chlorogenic acid, 0.11 catechin, 0.10 epicatechin and 0.20 mg/100 g rutin [25]. Pickled jalapeño peppers contained 3.13 catechin, 0.86 gallic acid, 0.07 chlorogenic acid, 0.05 coumaric acid and 0.02 mg/g resveratrol [23]. In another study, red sweet pepper varieties contained 21–374 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, 45–149 vanillic acid, 38–63 caffeic, 14–69 p-coumaric acid and 181–2025 µg/kg sinapic acid [4]. Results obtained exhibited some fluctuations compared to results of studies made by Blanco-Rios et al. [23] and Rodrigues et al. [4]. Although the phenolic compounds of fresh and fermented jalapeño fruits subjected to different drying methods were the same when compared with the literature data [4,23,25], differences were detected in their amounts. Environmental conditions, geographical region, genetic characteristics of varieties, harvesting stage and post-harvest storage conditions are effective on phenolic constituents of herbal agricultural products. When the results of the phenolic compounds obtained in this study were compared with the results of last reports, it was determined that some compounds decreased and some increased. In addition, the same feature was observed in the bioactive properties and phenolic constituent values of the jalapeño pepper samples. These changes are likely due to diversity, fermentation, applied heat treatments and norms, and solvent and extraction types.

3.3. The Fatty Acids of Fresh, Fermented and Dried Jalapeño Pepper Oils

The fatty acids of the oils extracted from fresh, fermented and dried jalapeño peppers are displayed in

Table 3. Fatty acid compositions of the oils extracted from jalapeño peppers (%).

Fatty Acids	Microwave			Conventional			Fermentation			Air Drying
Myristic	0.44	±	0.03 a *	0.34	±	0.01 b	- **			0.34	±	0.02 b
Palmitic	17.25	±	0.81 b	14.28	±	0.03 c	45.17	±	1.03 a	13.54	±	0.35 d
Stearic	3.60	±	0.08 c	5.58	±	0.00 b	10.32	±	0.04 a	2.22	±	0.03 d
Oleic	14.91	±	0.17 c	22.96	±	0.01 b	29.77	±	0.31 a	9.52	±	0.05 d
Linoleic	56.49	±	0.43 b	51.61	±	0.03 c	10.84	±	0.16 d	68.38	±	0.21 a
Arachidic	0.60	±	0.06 b	0.52	±	0.00 c	1.43	±	0.00 a	0.40	±	0.01 d
Linolenic	5.15	±	0.04 a	3.98	±	0.01 c	-			4.82	±	0.05 b
Behenic	0.56	±	0.06 a	0.31	±	0.00 c	-			0.42	±	0.01 b
Erucic	0.75	±	0.07 b	0.34	±	0.00 c	3.19	±	0.21 a	0.23	±	0.01 d
Arachidonic	0.24	±	0.01 a	0.08	±	0.00 c	-			0.11	±	0.00 b

* values within each row followed by different letters are significantly different at p < 0.05. **—not detected; ±: standard deviation.

. Major fatty acids of the oils received from peppers were stearic, palmitic, oleic and linoleic acids (Figure 2). The oleic acid values of fresh and processed jalapeño pepper oils were specified to be between 9.52 (air-dried) and 29.77% (fermented), while the linoleic acid values of pepper oils change between 10.84 (fermented) and 68.38% (air-dried). The palmitic and stearic values of pepper oils were stated to be between 13.54 (air-dried) and 45.17% (fermented) to 2.22 (air-dried) and 10.32% (fermented), respectively. Significant changes were observed among fatty acids of fresh and processed jalapeño peppers (p < 0.05). The applied processes had a significant effect on the fatty acid composition of jalapeño pepper oils. The stearic, palmitic and oleic acid amounts of the oils of the pepper fruits increased significantly with the fermentation process. In addition, the linoleic acid value of the oils extracted from the air-dried peppers increased significantly, while the palmitic, stearic and oleic acid values were significantly decreased. Jalapeño pepper oil has been found to be very rich in the essential fatty acid linoleic acid. Essential fatty acids have natural blood-thinning properties and can prevent blood clots that can lead to heart attacks. These fatty acids also contain natural anti-inflammatory compounds that can relieve symptoms of arthritis and autoimmune diseases. A diet low in essential fatty acids can cause skin problems such as dandruff, eczema, cracked nails, dull and brittle hair. They affect the structure of the cells along the intestinal tract, increasing the thickness and surface area of the digestive–absorbent cells lining the small intestine. This means better absorption of nutrients and less absorption of allergens [26]. The erucic acid value of pepper oils increased in fermented pepper oil compared to other processes. Linolenic acid values of pepper oils were characterized to be between 3.98% (oven) and 5.15% (fresh). The highest arachidonic fatty acid (1.43%) was identified in the oil obtained from fermented pepper. The quantities of other fatty acids were determined below 0.56%. In general, the processes applied on the fatty acids of pepper oils obtained from jalapeño peppers were significantly effective (p < 0.05). The oils extracted from the fruits of 10 different pepper varieties provided from different locations contained 14.12 to 23.10% palmitic, 0.54 to 1.27% palmitoleic, 4.20 to 9.91% stearic, 1.38 to 5.71% oleic, 54.08 to 71.38% linoleic and 1.95 to 6.28% linolenic acids [27]. In general, the dominant fatty acids of peppers were found to be similar to each other when compared with the results of few last reports [27], but there were differences in the quantities of fatty acids. These changes may be due to the cultivar, genetic structure, harvest time, temperature, irrigation, fertilization, oxygen and some processes applied.

3.4. The Protein and Mineral Results of Fresh, Fermented and Dried Jalapeño Peppers

The protein and mineral results of fresh, fermented and dried jalapeño peppers are displayed in

Table 4. Protein (%) and mineral contents (mg/kg) of fresh and processed jalapeño peppers.

Samples	Protein	P	K	Ca	Mg	S	Fe	Cu	Mn	Zn	B
Fresh	8.69 ± 0.10 c *	261.96 ± 5.22 d	2333.53 ± 14.40 a	213.47 ± 3.22 e	155.31 ± 3.93 d	197.82 ± 3.30 d	3.68 ± 0.40 d	0.91 ± 0.03 d	1.81 ± 0.30 c	1.82 ± 0.06 d,e	8.08 ± 0.29 b
Microwave	12.12 ± 0.36a b	1985.21 ± 168.01 a	20,615.20 ± 29.87 b	1454.17 ± 93.08 b	972.09 ± 2.83 a	1357.99 ± 91.48 b	28.37 ± 2.32 b	6.44 ± 0.73 a	9.31 ± 1.73 b	14.52 ± 0.89 b	0.92 ± 0.06 d
Conventional	12.22 ± 0.18 a	1943.01 ± 81.52 c	19,603.69 ± 602.90 c	1461.99 ± 79.46 a	954.57 ± 8.57 c	1361.46 ± 68.38 a	59.42 ± 2.17 a	5.39 ± 0.34 b	9.59 ± 0.84 a	15.50 ± 0.84 a	8.32 ± 0.31 a
Fermentation	8.59 ± 0.19 d	92.55 ± 2.45 e	995.55 ± 3.77 e	295.46 ± 1.17 d	83.44 ± 2.68 e	169.32 ± 1.76 e	2.84 ± 0.22 e	1.05 ± 0.04 c	0.94 ± 0.05 d	1.84 ± 0.27 d	7.25 ± 0.88 c
Air drying	11.64 ± 0.40 b	1947.19 ± 1.88 b	17,645.89 ± 1037.47 d	1361.39 ± 24.73 c	964.17 ± 6.18 b	1334.14 ± 2.28 c	25.47 ± 0.85 c	6.33 ± 0.55 a	9.64 ± 1.38 a	13.48 ± 0.93 c	0.89 ± 0.04 e

* values within each column followed by different letters are significantly different at p < 0.05; ±: standard deviation.

. Significant changes were observed in protein and mineral results of fresh and processed jalapeño pepper samples (p < 0.05). Protein amounts of the fresh, fermented and dried jalapeño peppers were characterized to be between 8.59 (fermented) and 12.22% (oven). Major minerals of peppers were K, P, S, Ca, Mg, Fe and Zn in decreasing order. While P results of fresh and processed peppers are found between 92.55 (fermented) and 1985.21 mg/kg (microwave), K values of peppers were specified to be between 995.55 (fermented) and 2333.53 mg/kg (fresh). Ca and Mg results of fresh and processed jalapeño peppers were altered to be between 213.47 (fresh) and 1461.99 mg/kg (oven) to 83.44 (fermented) and 972.09 mg/kg (microwave), respectively. S amounts in pepper changed between 169.32 (fermented) and 1361.46 mg/kg (oven). Fe and Zn amounts in fresh and processed peppers were determined to be between 2.84 (fermented) and 59.42 mg/kg (oven) to 1.82 (fresh) and (1.84 mg/kg), respectively. The highest Mn (9.59 mg/kg) and B (8.32 mg/kg) were found in pepper samples dried in the oven. Significant changes were monitored among protein and mineral amounts in fresh and processed jalapeño peppers (p < 0.05). In general, the mineral amounts of fermented peppers (except Cu and B) were significantly reduced when compared to fresh and other processed peppers. This decrease is probably due to the fact that a significant number of the minerals in the pepper are transferred to the brine during fermentation. It is thought that the high mineral content in dried peppers may be due to the increase in dry matter content due to the removal of water from the peppers during drying. As a result, mineral and protein values of dried jalapeño pepper samples were higher than those of fresh and fermented peppers. In general, most of the mineral results of the peppers dried in the oven and microwave were reported to be higher than those of the peppers dried in the air. The highest protein quantity in peppers was found in Kanthari pepper (26.73%), followed by Piriyan pepper (26.53%) and Sambari red pepper (15.26%) in decreasing order [28]. Ten different pepper varieties provided from different locations contained 159 to 223 mg/100 g K, 8.8 to 13.9 mg/100 g Ca, 11.2 to 18.8 mg/100 g Mg, 17.4 to 37.6 mg/100 g P, 4.6 to 11.2 mg/100 g S, 54 to 206 mg/100 g Mn, 288 to 975 mg/100 g Fe, 15 to 303 mg/100 g Cu, and 270 to 775 mg/100 g Zn [27]. In other studies, the protein amounts of Capsicum genus varied between 92.64 to 14.0% [29,30,31]. The protein content was in between 8.93% to 6.07% in 35 genotype of capsicum [32]. Rubio et al. [33] determined the macro- (Na, K, Ca, Mg and P) and micro-element (Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn and B) values of green and red peppers consumed in Tenerife island of the Canary Islands. According to their results, red and green peppers contained 195 and 143 mg/100 g K, 18.6 and 17.6 mg/100 g Ca, 16.0 and 13.6 mg/100 g Mg, 30.5 and 13.6 P, 0.31 and 0.27 mg/100 g Fe, 0.07 and 0.05 mg/100 g Cu, 0.17 and 0.13 Zn, 0.07 and 0.05 Mn, 0.07 and 0.05 mg/100 g B, respectively. The concentrations of minerals in peppers depend on variety, agricultural practices, temperature, the moisture status of the soil and the amount of antagonist components in the soil, fertilization, harvest time, location and processes applied [33,34]. Results for fresh and processed jalapeño peppers were reported to differ significantly from previous studies. It was thought that these differences could possibly be caused by the location where the peppers are grown, soil structure, maturity status and applied processes.

3.5. The Sensory Evaluations of Fermented Jalapeño Peppers

The sensory properties of jalapeño peppers that completed their fermentation in a brine with this characteristic are presented in

Table 5. Sensory properties of fermented jalapeño pepper.

Properties	Fermented Jalapeño Pepper
Flavor	4.83	±	0.41
Odor	3.83	±	1.33
Color	4.83	±	0.41
Texture	4.83	±	0.41
Pepperiness	4.50	±	0.84

±: standard deviation.

. Flavor, odor, color and texture features were taken into account as sensory parameters in peppers. As a result of panelist evaluations, the most appreciated features (4.83 score) were flavor, color and texture feature. These results are considered quite positive over the maximum score. Only the odor score (3.83) was partially reduced. This score may possibly have resulted from degradation products as a result of biochemical reactions occurring during fermentation and spontaneous fermentation.

4. Conclusions

The highest carotenoid content was found in the air-dried pepper samples, followed by microwave, oven fresh and fermented pepper samples in decreasing order. The fermentation process reduced the physicochemical and bioactive properties of peppers compared to the drying processes. In general, the highest phenolic components were observed in microwave-dried jalapeño pepper samples. The stearic, palmitic and oleic acid contents of the oils of the pepper fruits increased significantly with the fermentation process. The air drying process significantly increased the linoleic acid content of the oils obtained from the peppers, while decreasing the palmitic, stearic and oleic acid contents. According to the statistical analysis results, the drying and fermentation status of the samples had a significant effect on the mineral result of the pepper. Microwave-dried jalapeño pepper had higher mineral contents (in P, K, Mg, P, S, Fe, Cu, Zn and B) than air-dried and fermented jalapeño pepper. In addition, the macro- and micro-element results of the microwave-dried jalapeño peppers were found to be close to each other. The most appreciated features (4.83 score) were flavor, color and texture features. As a result, fermentation decreased the number of bioactive compounds in the peppers, while drying (especially air drying) increased the number of bioactive compounds in jalapeño peppers. In addition, air drying increased the amount of linoleic acid, an essential fatty acid. In addition, microwave drying increased the mineral content of peppers among the drying types.