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Article

Medical Education: Are Reels a Good Deal in Video-Based Learning?

by
Daniel Humberto Pozza
1,2,*,
Fani Lourença Neto
1,2,
José Tiago Costa-Pereira
1,2,3 and
Isaura Tavares
1,2
1
Experimental Biology Unit, Department of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine of Porto, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal
2
Institute for Research and Innovation in Health and IBMC, University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
3
Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Porto, 4150-180 Porto, Portugal
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 981; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15080981 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 16 May 2025 / Revised: 1 July 2025 / Accepted: 23 July 2025 / Published: 31 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Higher Education Development and Technological Innovation)

Abstract

Based on our question, “Are reels/short-videos the real deal in video-based learning?” this study explores the effectiveness of short (around 2 min) video-based learning in engaging medical students from the second large medical Portuguese school. With the increasing integration of digital tools in education, video content has emerged as a dynamic method to enhance learning experiences. This cross-sectional survey was conducted by using anonymous self-administered questionnaires, prepared with reference to previous studies, and distributed to 264 informed students who voluntarily agreed to participate. This sample represented 75.5% of the students attending the classes. The questionnaires included topics related to the 65 short videos about practical classes, as well as the students’ learning preferences. The collected data were analyzed using descriptive and comparative statistics. The students considered that the content and format of the videos were adequate (99.6% and 100%, respectively). Specifically, the videos helped the students to better understand the practical classes, consolidate and retain the practical content, and simplify the study for the exams. Additionally, the videos were praised for their high-quality audiovisual content, being innovative, complete, concise, short and/or adequate, or better than other formats such as printed information. The combination of written and audiovisual support materials for teaching and studying is important and has been shown to improve students’ performance. This pedagogical methodology is well-suited for the current generation of students, aiding not only in study and exam preparation but also in remote learning.

1. Introduction

The microscope is essential in biology and medical education, giving students a vital view of cells and tissues and revealing disease-related changes. By examining biological specimens, namely biopsies of normal and pathologic human tissue under the microscope, medical students may develop a deep appreciation for the intricate details of cell biology, histology, and physiology, along with biopathology. This visual understanding of the cells and tissues is essential for accurate diagnosis and treatment (Ishak et al., 2022; Maity et al., 2023; Veeraraghavan & Silverstein, 2021).
However, students’ inexperience with microscopy can hinder accurate image interpretation, making it hard to identify structures and distinguish artefacts from real features. We testified some of those limitations in the context of teaching histology and embryology (H&E) to medical students of the Faculty of Medicine of Porto (FMUP), the second largest medical school in Portugal. Theoretical H&E teaching covers the components of major tissues and organs and key prenatal development stages, which should be reinforced by hands-on microscopy of cell, tissue, and organ features. However, H&E often feel abstract, and students may struggle to link theory with practical observation (Carneiro et al., 2023). Moreover, students fail to figure out the importance of learning and understanding normal structures and their development during the embryonic period, as well as their relationship to the body’s physiological functions (Hamilton & Carachi, 2014; Johnson et al., 2015; Yamada et al., 2006).
This has led to the implementation of strategies based on new technology, complementing traditional teaching, and enhancing student engagement in the learning process (Grainger et al., 2021; Johnson et al., 2015; Weeks & Horan, 2013), namely by using digital resources. These technologies can increase student knowledge, foster critical thinking, and improve academic performance (Felszeghy et al., 2019; Gould et al., 2008; Kelly et al., 2009).
In parallel with these educational innovations, there is a growing tendency to move from written search (e.g., Google) to video-based information access (e.g., TikTok). Health-related information shared via social media is often presented in short videos. However, since most platforms lack content regulation and expert scientific oversight for peer-reviewing health information, the information shared in this format can be misleading. Additionally, most of the videos on platforms like TikTok and Instagram may be difficult to find and archive (Yeung et al., 2022). Non-physicians frequently share medical advice on the platforms, often presenting treatments that lack strong supporting evidence (Hong et al., 2023). Therefore, medical content produced by professors and physicians is essential for providing reliable information. Considering that TikTok health-related videos tend to be very poor, often lacking thorough citations and detailed discussions of risks and benefits, healthcare providers might consider creating their own short videos to share accurate insights and reach a broader audience (Bethell et al., 2023).
On the other hand, educational videos seem to be a promising technology for autonomous and active learning, and their use has increased exponentially in medical education (Balslev et al., 2005; Bordes et al., 2021; Brame, 2016; Prober & Khan, 2013; Weeks & Horan, 2013). Students often use video or video-sharing online platforms to effectively enhance gross anatomy knowledge and increase their learning (Ang et al., 2017; Barry et al., 2016; Jaffar, 2012). Video-based learning has the potential to shift traditional lecture-based teaching toward more autonomous student activities, resulting in higher satisfaction, improved student performance, and greater engagement (Brame, 2016; Dervan, 1992; Evans et al., 2016; Strkalj et al., 2018). Additionally, videos offer medical students the flexibility to study at their own pace (Dong & Goh, 2015).
At FMUP the H&E courses are present in two semesters of the Integrated Masters in Medicine. The teaching of H&E includes a strong component of theoretical–practical classes where students discuss theoretical concepts provided in advance followed by the observation of histological and embryological slides guided by written material. The teaching approach complements and reinforces the theoretical component. A series of short, narrated videos showcasing various histological and some embryological preparations were created and made available to students, covering several contents of H&E. We hypothesized that adding short videos to the existing written support material would improve students’ understanding and study of the practical component, thereby enhancing their theoretical comprehension and the final grades in the H&E courses.
Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of short videos on student satisfaction and performance outcomes, as well as their perception of the videos’ usefulness in preparing for practical classes and understanding the curriculum content. As secondary objectives, we also assessed students’ preferences for delivery platforms and their predominant learning styles.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Objectives and Hypotheses

Primary Research Questions (RQ) and Null Hypotheses (H)
RQ1: 
What effect do short instructional videos have on student satisfaction in practical science classes?
H01: 
There is no difference in mean satisfaction scores between students who use short videos and those who do not.
RQ2: 
How do short instructional videos influence student performance outcomes in practical science assessments?
H02: 
There is no difference in mean practical assessment scores between students who prepare with short videos and those who prepare by traditional means alone.
RQ3: 
How do students perceive the usefulness of short videos for preparing for practical classes and understanding curriculum content?
H03ₐ: 
The proportion of students rating videos as “agree” or “fully agree” useful for practical preparation is equal to or less than 50%.
H03ᵦ: 
The proportion of students rating videos as “agree” or “fully agree” useful for clarifying curriculum content is equal to or less than 50%.
Secondary Research Questions and Null Hypotheses
RQ4: 
Which delivery platform(s) (e.g., YouTube, Moodle) do students prefer for accessing short instructional videos?
H04: 
Students show no preference for any one delivery platform over the others.
RQ5: 
What are the predominant learning styles of students who benefit most from short instructional videos?
H05ₐ: 
There is no difference in satisfaction or performance gains between visual learners and auditory learners when using the videos.
H05ᵦ: 
There is no difference in satisfaction or performance gains between kinaesthetic learners and visual learners when using the videos.

2.2. Study Design and Data Collection

This study was approved by the Ethics and Research Committee of the São João Hospital (protocol number CE 38-2020). During the year 2019/20, the students had access to short videos, as described below. Data collection started on 17 February and ended on 13 March 2020. A cross-sectional survey was conducted using anonymous printed questionnaires distributed by the FMUP professors. The questionnaires did not record any identification data, and participation was voluntary.
The methodology of data acquisition followed the self-administered questionnaire without any intervention of the authors or any specific person. The questionnaires did not contain any identifying information about the participants to ensure confidentiality. Only fully filled questionnaires were included for the data analysis. The inclusion criteria comprised only students from FMUP attending H&E classes, who were 18 years or older, and who understood and agreed to participate anonymously in the study. The participation required signing an informed consent form, which was stored separately from the questionnaire. A numerical correspondent number was used on both instruments to handle any potential withdrawal from the study.
The questionnaires included eight multiple-choice questions for those who had watched the short videos and one open-ended question for those who had not watched the videos (Table 1). There were 65 short videos at that moment, lasting for 2 min and 18 s on average, available in Moodle and YouTube®, which were recorded in October 2019.
The questionnaire was developed based on previous studies (Gould et al., 2008; Strkalj et al., 2018; Topping, 2014; Weeks & Horan, 2013). Additionally, the VARK questionnaire (Leite et al., 2010) was included to provide some information about students’ learning preferences. Before being distributed, the questionnaires were piloted with five faculty members to ensure clarity. To avoid misinterpretations, the questionnaires were provided only in Portuguese. Finally, the students’ grades, without any identification data, were used to compare performance with the previous academic year, when the short videos were still unavailable.

2.3. Data Analysis

The data obtained from the questionnaires were analyzed using the IBM® SPSS® Statistics software version 27. For a margin of error of 5% and a confidence level of 95% (Z-value of 1.96), the minimum sample size required was 169 students. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the demographic characteristics of the sample and the frequency of responses. All inferential analyses were conducted with two-tailed α set at 0.05. Associations between categorical variables (e.g., percentage of classifications) were tested using Pearson’s Chi-square (χ2), with exact test statistics and degrees of freedom reported and effect sizes calculated via Cramer’s V (V = 0.23). Differences in ordinal and non-normally distributed continuous outcomes (e.g., final scores) were examined using Mann–Whitney U tests, reporting U, standardized z, exact p-values, and effect size r. Open-ended responses were subjected to thematic content analysis by two independent researchers. Inter-rater reliability for theme coding was assessed with Cohen’s Kappa, with κ reported for each major theme. Discrepancies were resolved through iterative discussion until consensus was reached.

3. Results

Two hundred and sixty-four students answered the questionnaire, representing 75.5% of the students attending H&E classes at that time. Most of the respondents (97.3%) viewed the short videos. Seven students (2.7%) who answered the questionnaire but did not view the videos reported the following reasons: not knowing about the videos’ existence (4 students), not finding the videos necessary for studying H&E (2 students) or being engaged with the study of other subjects of the medical course (1 student). The mean number of visualizations (min–max) in Moodle was 614 ± 103 (434–1043), and in YouTube® it was 272 ± 131 (82–615) per video.
All participants (100%) reported that the content was adequate for the classes. The main reasons highlighted in the open-ended question were grouped as follows: 51.6% considered that the short videos helped them better understand the practical content of the classes, and 48.4% believed that the short videos helped them consolidate and remember the practical content, facilitating the exam preparation. Additionally, 99.6% of respondents reported that the format of the videos was suitable for the following reasons: it facilitated the study (69.6%), presented good quality audiovisual content (15.2%), was innovative, complete, concise, short and/or adequate (11.6%) or was better than other formats such as printed information (2.9%). Furthermore, 99.6% fully agreed or agreed that the videos helped them better understand the contents of H&E, with no participants disagreeing or fully disagreeing. Similarly, 100% fully agreed or agreed that the audiovisual material helped in studying for assessments (Table 2).
Regarding the use of audiovisual material for the preparation of practical classes, 91.2% of students fully agreed or agreed that it was helpful, while only 1.2% disagreed or completely disagreed (Table 2).
For the platform preference for watching short videos, 75.3% preferred Moodle, and 6.7% preferred both options (Moodle and YouTube®) (Figure 1). The main reasons for preferring Moodle were its ease of access and use (53.7%), good organization (28.0%), and the absence of distractions, such as other videos and advertising that happens exclusively on YouTube (7.9%). The Chi-square test confirmed that these differences were significant (p < 0.001).
Most students (84.0%) used the existing PDF support material in conjunction with the new audiovisual material to study. Likewise, the vast majority (83.1%) reported preferring combined support materials.
In the VARK survey, most respondents (37.2%) presented an aural preference, followed by kinaesthetic (30.7%), visual (21.2%), and reading/writing (10.8%) preferences (Figure 2). There were no statistical differences among VARK preferences and platform preferences in Chi-square test (p = 0.287).
Finally, there was a statistically significant improvement in final scores between academic years. On a scale from 0 to 20, where 0 is the lowest and 20 the highest, the mean score increased from 12.9 (±4.8) in 2018/2019 to 15.5 (±3.7) in 2019/2020. This difference was statistically significant, as confirmed by a Mann–Whitney U test (U = 30,094.5, p < 0.001). Furthermore, the proportion of students achieving high scores (between 18 and 20) rose from 22.3% in 2018/2019 to 40.5% in 2019/2020. A Chi-square test of independence confirmed this increase was significant (χ2(1) = 22.16, p < 0.001), with a Cramer’s V effect size of 0.19, indicating a small to medium association. These findings suggest a meaningful improvement in academic performance.

4. Discussion

This study demonstrated the impact of the introduction of short videos as a complement to the existing written support materials in the H&E classes of a medical course. The inclusion of digital technology in medical education can be an attractive complement or alternative to traditional, lecture-based teaching (Felszeghy et al., 2019; Grainger et al., 2021; Topping, 2014). Specifically, video-based learning provides a flexible study mechanism, allowing students to learn independently and transforming practical class time into a more student-centred activity (Ang et al., 2017; Baldwin et al., 2016; Dong & Goh, 2015; Ramlogan et al., 2014; Weeks & Horan, 2013).
Until 2019, the only study materials available for H&E practical classes were written PDFs containing microscopic images and accompanying legends. Based on the different learning styles of students and evidence suggesting that providing diverse teaching materials is beneficial, the previously available resources likely catered primarily to students who preferred reading or visual learning styles. However, these materials may have been less effective for those who favoured auditory or kinaesthetic learning approaches. In fact, it is well-established that both visual and auditory inputs are crucial in shaping learning preferences, as studies have shown that medical students exhibit a wide range of learning styles (Dervan, 1992; Dong & Goh, 2015; Strkalj et al., 2018). Consistent with the VARK learning preferences of our medical students, the present approach reinforces the need to provide support materials for aural and kinaesthetic students as well. However, the learning-styles model itself suffers from serious psychometric weaknesses, including low test–retest reliability and a lack of predictive validity (Cook, 2012; Pashler et al., 2008), which should temper our reliance on its classifications.
Despite these limitations, present in any teaching model, we now offer students the opportunity to create their own videos during practical classes, under our supervision, to enhance engagement. However, this approach introduces logistical challenges including additional class time for producing and homework for editing, as well as a clear, transparent assessment criterion to fairly evaluate individual contribution and video content. It is important for professors to understand the new generations and their interaction with technology and knowledge acquisition in order to motivate active participation in classes (Brame, 2016; Ravat et al., 2021; Xie, 2021). These videos aim to closely approximate the reality of microscopic observation, and enhance student engagement in H&E, thereby increasing attention to important visual information (Brame, 2016; Grainger et al., 2021; Johnson et al., 2015; Weeks & Horan, 2013). Moreover, students today often use short video-sharing social networking platforms to communicate and share information about medical education (Comp et al., 2021).
Interestingly, our study revealed that 100% of the students fully agreed or agreed that the audiovisual material helps in studying for assessments. Furthermore, there was a clear increase in the students’ exam grades after the introduction of the short videos. Although academic performance is influenced by multiple factors, including potential confounders, such as cohort characteristics, the introduction of short videos in H&E practical classes was associated with higher student satisfaction and improved assessment scores. This pedagogical tool allows students to review the videos as many times as needed, making them flexible tools that enable learning at their own pace (Strkalj et al., 2018).
Although the videos were available on YouTube, they received more views on Moodle (students’ preferred platform) likely because Moodle is our primary learning management system (Altinpulluk & Kesim, 2021). It also embeds videos directly within course materials, offers better content organization, and eliminates ads and distractions (Pérez-Juárez et al., 2023). Nevertheless, YouTube® allows students to create playlists and the broader dissemination of the audiovisual material for those without access to the Moodle institutional platform (Barry et al., 2016; Curran et al., 2020; Jaffar, 2012). In this context, and since the videos were narrated in Portuguese, they are also an important tool for partnerships with Portuguese-speaking countries, namely those that have some challenges in the access to medical histological slides. Our medical school receives a significant number of students from those countries and is open to establishing protocols with countries such as Mozambique, Guinea Bissau, and East Timor to provide pedagogical materials using tools such as those collected with high-quality microscopes. The role of our medical students in these sorts of collaborative projects is important and may even benefit their own performance. The shift from traditional lecture-based teaching to a more student-centred, active learning seems to have boosted students’ satisfaction and performance (Brame, 2016; Dervan, 1992; Dong & Goh, 2015; Evans et al., 2016; Felszeghy et al., 2019; Gould et al., 2008; Kelly et al., 2009; Strkalj et al., 2018).
Following current pedagogic recommendations, and considering that students’ attention spans allow only a limited amount of information to be effectively processed (Moreno, 2007), most videos are less than 3 min (an average of 2 min and 18 s). In practice, short videos, rather than long ones, are more effective in keeping students’ attention, as they are better accepted and associated with higher satisfaction levels (Bordes et al., 2021; Dong & Goh, 2015; Strkalj et al., 2018). This approach enhances the understanding of basic science, as demonstrated in the results of this and previous studies (Bordes et al., 2021; Stockwell et al., 2015; Strkalj et al., 2018). Importantly, the structure and narrative design of these short videos were carefully considered. Research in instructional design highlights that storytelling elements, such as clear beginnings, narrative arcs, and contextual relevance, enhance engagement and memory retention. By embedding educational content within a coherent narrative, videos can scaffold decision-making, promote metacognitive development, and foster deeper learning. Therefore, it is essential to examine the pedagogical value of these videos not only in terms of content but also in how their structure supports learning. Future research should explore specific examples of these videos in a structured format to better understand how narrative elements contribute to educational outcomes (Efthymiou, 2025).
Although the audiovisual material was introduced in 2019, before the COVID-19 pandemic, it proved to be unquestionably helpful during the sudden transition from face-to-face to virtual classes due to the forced lockdown. From March to July 2021, there were several confinements and students had no access to light microscopes and histological slides, and the availability of these short videos was crucial for their understanding of H&E and the acquisition of basic concepts, particularly during the initial phase of the lockdown. Nevertheless, it is important to emphasize that individual contact with light microscopes in H&E teaching should not be replaced by exclusive reliance on short videos. Instead, these videos should serve as a complement. The hands-on search and observation of various tissues and organ components, noting their similarities and differences among distinct histological preparations, is a vital aspect of medical training that technology cannot fully replicate.
Finally, in alignment with the educational recommendations (Maity et al., 2023), and to support independent study at home, we have incorporated a virtual microscope into our courses. Although it currently provides only one histological slide per sample (lacking the diversity of serial slides from the same histological sample), students have responded positively, finding it beneficial for their learning despite this limitation. Additionally, the brief instructional videos discussed here serve as a helpful guide for students as they navigate this digital tool.

Limitations

The short questionnaire provided a few but very important results. The questions were carefully selected to retrieve the most important information while ensuring the highest response rate. Additionally, open-ended questions were included for those who wished to provide more detailed feedback. However, this study was conducted at only one institution, so the results may not be generalizable. Notably, the comparison of students’ grades was limited to the academic year before the short videos were available versus the 2019/2020 academic year when the short videos were implemented. Since student grades are influenced by numerous factors, this simple comparison may introduce bias. While the VARK survey is a useful tool for identifying learning preferences, it has some limitations. The survey covers only four learning styles and is inherently subjective, so its results should be interpreted with caution. There is also some controversy about the validity of VARK-type instruments. To address these limitations, future research should employ multi-institutional or cross-cultural designs, incorporate longitudinal or randomized controlled trials to control for external influences on grades, and consider alternative or supplementary instruments for assessing learner differences. Despite these constraints, our findings offer valuable guidance for enhancing pedagogy within our faculty and in partnerships with other Portuguese-language institutions.

5. Conclusions

Based on the results of this study, we concluded that combining written and audiovisual support materials for teaching and studying is highly beneficial. This approach improved students’ performance and catered to almost all types of VARK-based learning preferences. The results demonstrated that this methodology is well-suited for the current generation of students, aiding not only in class preparation but also in studying for assessments. Additionally, it proved to be a valuable resource for virtual classes. Furthermore, it should be noted that short videos may also be useful in medical and other healthcare courses for several subjects other than H&E, namely cell biology and biopathology. The study concludes with recommendations for incorporating video-based learning into healthcare curricula to maximize educational benefits and prepare students for practical, real-world scenarios.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.H.P., F.L.N. and I.T.; Methodology, D.H.P., F.L.N., J.T.C.-P. and I.T.; Validation, D.H.P. and F.L.N.; Formal analysis, D.H.P., J.T.C.-P. and I.T.; Investigation, D.H.P., F.L.N. and I.T.; Resources, D.H.P.; Data curation, D.H.P.; Writing—original draft, D.H.P., F.L.N., J.T.C.-P. and I.T.: Writing—review & editing, D.H.P., F.L.N., J.T.C.-P. and I.T.; Visualization, F.L.N. and J.T.C.-P.; Project administration, D.H.P. and I.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics and Research Committee of the São João Hospital, Portugal (protocol code 38-2020, approved on 28 January 2020).

Informed Consent Statement

Written informed consent has been obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, D.H.P., upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Platform preference to watch videos.
Figure 1. Platform preference to watch videos.
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Figure 2. VARK survey predominance.
Figure 2. VARK survey predominance.
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Table 1. Questionnaire.
Table 1. Questionnaire.
1. If you have watched the histology and embryology videos (if not, go to nº 2):
1.1—Is the content adequate? Yes or no and why?
1.2—Is the format suitable? Yes or no and why?
1.3—Did the videos help to better understand histology and embryology (Likert scale)?
1.4—Did the videos help you in your studies for the exams (Likert scale)?
1.5—Are the videos useful for preparing practical lessons (Likert scale)?
1.6—Do you prefer to watch the videos on Moodle or on YouTube? Justify your choice.
1.7—What support material for practical classes did you use the most to study: pdf of the practical class/video of the practical class/both: pdf + video of the practical class?
1.8—What support material for practical classes do you prefer: pdf of the practical class/video of the practical class/both: pdf + video of the practical class?
2. If you have not seen any of the videos, please tell us why?
3. Values of VARK (https://vark-learn.com/questionario-vark-2 accessed on 28 July 2025): 3.1. Visual? 3.2. Read/Write? 3.3. Aural? 3.4. Kinesthetic?
Table 2. Summary of the multiple-choice questions (n = 264).
Table 2. Summary of the multiple-choice questions (n = 264).
QuestionNº of Answers (%)
1. Videos helped to better understand H&E
Fully disagree2 (0.8)
Disagree1 (0.4)
Neither agree nor disagree19 (7.6)
Agree45 (17.9)
Fully agree184 (73.3)
2. Videos are useful for class preparation
Fully disagree0 (0)
Disagree0 (0)
Neither agree nor disagree0 (0)
Agree20 (7.8)
Fully agree237 (92.2)
3. Videos helped for preparation of the evaluation
Fully disagree0 (0)
Disagree0 (0)
Neither agree nor disagree1 (0.4)
Agree32 (12.5)
Fully agree224 (87.2)
Legend: Nº—number, H&E—histology and embryology. Missing cases were not included in the analysis.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Pozza, D.H.; Neto, F.L.; Costa-Pereira, J.T.; Tavares, I. Medical Education: Are Reels a Good Deal in Video-Based Learning? Educ. Sci. 2025, 15, 981. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15080981

AMA Style

Pozza DH, Neto FL, Costa-Pereira JT, Tavares I. Medical Education: Are Reels a Good Deal in Video-Based Learning? Education Sciences. 2025; 15(8):981. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15080981

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pozza, Daniel Humberto, Fani Lourença Neto, José Tiago Costa-Pereira, and Isaura Tavares. 2025. "Medical Education: Are Reels a Good Deal in Video-Based Learning?" Education Sciences 15, no. 8: 981. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15080981

APA Style

Pozza, D. H., Neto, F. L., Costa-Pereira, J. T., & Tavares, I. (2025). Medical Education: Are Reels a Good Deal in Video-Based Learning? Education Sciences, 15(8), 981. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15080981

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