Rethinking Traditional Playgrounds: Temporary Landscape Interventions to Advance Informal Early STEAM Learning in Outdoors

Abstract

Traditional playground settings are often less effective in fostering STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics)-related activities, as fixed play structures tend to restrict the diversity of play behaviors and inhibit children’s ability to engage in self-directed, imaginative exploration. Using a research-through-design methodology, this study investigated how playground design (temporary landscape interventions) influences children’s engagement in informal STEAM learning activities and enhances the STEAM learning affordances of the playground. Conducted at an early learning center in Lubbock, Texas, the research involved GIS-based Environment–Behavior Mapping (E-B Mapping) and video analysis of 21 preschool-age children to compare pre- and post-intervention STEAM learning behaviors. The intervention incorporated fourteen nature-based landscape elements—such as sand and water play areas, sensory gardens, loose parts, art areas, etc.—to enhance affordances for informal STEAM activities. The results showed a marked decrease in passive behaviors and a notable rise in constructive play; collaborative interactions; and STEAM-related activities such as building, hypothesizing, observing, and experimenting. Engagement shifted away from fixed play structures to more diverse and naturalized play settings. The findings underscore the critical role of integrating diverse landscape settings and elements into playgrounds in enriching STEAM learning experiences for young children.

1. Introduction

Learning experiences of children that engage multiple senses (such as sight, smell, touch, hearing, and movement) and occur in dynamic, real-world environments with social interaction and self-directed learner involvement are highly effective (Shaw, 2016). In addition, research shows that learning the same content while physically moving, rather than being stationary, leads to more effective and lasting outcomes (Dirnagl & Müller, 2016). This multi-sensory and active outdoor learning approach, which allows learners of all ages to move around; interact physically with learning materials; view things from various angles; and use all their senses, including smell, taste, and hearing, results in deeper, more resilient learning and improved long-term memory retention (Jucker & von Au, 2022). Preschool-aged children are particularly adept at retaining information in their long-term memory when they are in learning environments that engage all of their senses (Yıldırım & Akamca, 2017). Informal science activities (in a natural outdoor environment) are critical for supporting long-term learning in STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, the Arts, and Math) fields (Morris et al., 2019). Preschoolers learn best from concrete examples, things they can experience firsthand. Abstract topics often confuse children and frustrate their efforts to learn (Oltman, 2002). The quality of education is determined not entirely by the educators (who) and the curriculum (what) but also by the physical setting (where) of educational activities. This aspect of the environment is now acknowledged as a key factor in delivering high-quality early childhood education and care (Melhuish, 2016).

Outdoor playground areas in childcare centers often serve as a modern substitute for the backyards of the past. However, these outdoor areas usually feature standalone and static play equipment set on a uniform grassy lawn, lacking diversity and connection to the essence of being outdoors (Herrington & Studtmann, 1998). Such designs predominantly focus on physical activities, overlooking children’s social, emotional, and cognitive development. Sobel (2004) analyzed studies on naturalized playgrounds and concluded that these environments positively influence the development of children’s environmental stewardship values. He found that the more diverse these natural landscapes are, the more they enhance children’s appreciation and experiences of nature. Research highlighted that children’s play in natural settings tends to be richer in social interactions and more sophisticated, focused, and imaginative than play in structured playgrounds (Fiala, 2017; Nedovic & Morrissey, 2013). Playing in natural surroundings also increases children’s curiosity about their environment, leading to more vivid recounts of their experiences (Gurholt & Sanderud, 2016). In these spaces, children actively shape their surroundings with intent and become deeply engrossed in their activities, more so than in playgrounds (Martens et al., 2020). These observations suggest that naturalistic play settings can enhance behaviors such as creativity, social interaction, and detailed observation, which are beneficial for early STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education (Tunnicliffe & Kennedy, 2022). There is a pressing need for design approaches that embrace these developmental aspects and integrate the distinctive qualities of outdoor environments to create enriching spaces for children (Herrington & Studtmann, 1998). Thus, the design of play environments significantly influences both the quality and frequency of children’s play activities (Frost et al., 2012). Play is more likely to emerge and be sustained in environments that offer a high degree of action possibilities. These possibilities, referred to as affordances (Gibson, 2014), represent the opportunities for interaction that a space provides to a child, which could encourage or restrict play engagement. A child’s ability to perceive, utilize, and adapt to these affordances is shaped by various factors, including the overall layout and size of the play area, its topographical features, and the availability of both natural and constructed elements (Kernan, 2010).

Nicholson (1971) was among the earliest scholars to highlight the significance of flexible affordances within play and learning environments, emphasizing their role in fostering both physical and cognitive development through exposure to novelty and challenge. His Theory of Loose Parts posits that environments enriched with a variety of movable and modifiable elements enhance children’s opportunities for exploration and creativity. He articulately stated, “In any environment, both the degree of inventiveness and creativity and the possibility of discovery, are directly proportional to the number and kind of variables in it” (Nicholson, 1971, p. 6). According to this study, the more complex and engaging the affordances, the greater the range of actions children are likely to perceive and undertake. Affordance in outdoor play environments offers children a wide range of opportunities to engage in activities such as exploration, construction, climbing, experimentation, running, jumping, hiding, and risk-taking (E. Worch et al., 2022). The beneficial effects of flexible affordances on the play behaviors of both preschool and school-aged children have been well-documented in the literature (Carr et al., 2017; Drown, 2014; Kernan, 2010; Larrea et al., 2019; Rivkin & Schein, 2014; E. Worch et al., 2022). Rivkin and Schein (2014) emphasized that unstructured, hands-on play and spontaneous exploration in natural settings enhance children’s intrinsic motivation and lay a meaningful foundation for subsequent formal learning experiences in the classroom. Moreover, informal learning environments notably transition the emphasis from traditional teacher-led instruction to a learner-centered approach, thereby cultivating vital 21st-century competencies, including creativity, critical analysis, teamwork, and effective communication (Hussim et al., 2024). In this context, thoughtfully designed playgrounds are pivotal in motivating children to participate in play-based activities, which in turn significantly contribute to their comprehensive development (Diningrat, 2019).

While the importance of place-specific playground design has been recognized (Jansson, 2010; Refshauge et al., 2015), it is equally important to incorporate insights from other areas of child development such as understanding play behavior and developmental stages in order to inform more effective design choices. In projects with particular user groups, settings, or scenarios, there is a growing expectation that landscape architects adopt an evidence-based approach (Brown & Corry, 2011). When designing play areas for children, it is crucial to consider the landscape elements that can be used for play. Allowing children to select their own activities and shape their play environment is a key aspect of their play experience (Chawla, 2015; Fjørtoft & Sageie, 2000; Moore, 1989). This research study aims to identify how evidence-based playground design (temporary landscape interventions) influences children’s engagement in informal STEAM learning activities and enhances the STEAM learning affordances of that playground.

STEAM Behaviors Supportive Playground Settings and Landscape Elements (Based on the Literature Review)

STEAM is an educational approach that highlights the interconnectedness of science, technology, engineering, the arts, and mathematics in classroom instruction (Munawar et al., 2019; Nugraha et al., 2025). It serves as a framework for students to generate innovative ideas grounded in science and technology by engaging in exploration and critical thinking to solve problems across these five integrated fields (Nugraha et al., 2025). STEAM education is recognized for fostering the development of essential skills in children. It promotes exploration and learning by encouraging them to observe their surroundings, conduct investigations, and pose thoughtful questions about the world (Hunter-Doniger, 2021). Young children engage in activities such as constructing, creating, manipulating, and imagining during play. This playful engagement forms a foundational part of their learning in science and engineering (Kennedy & Tunnicliffe, 2022). Through engineering-focused play, children begin to interpret their surroundings, gradually building understanding based on the scientific and engineering concepts they encounter (Donnelly et al., 2025; Speldewinde & Campbell, 2023). Early STEAM learning has received renewed attention in recent years because of its critical ties to children’s foundational cognitive and problem-solving skills (Wahyuningsih et al., 2020) and preparation for future STEAM careers (Konkus & Topsakal, 2022). Early STEAM enrichment plays a crucial role in addressing the growing concern that the U.S. is lagging in STEM achievement, with international rankings placing it 13th in mathematics and 31st in science (Choi, 2022), and over one million STEM jobs remaining unfilled (Drozd et al., 2017; Wised & Inthanon, 2024).

Based on the literature review (Trina et al., 2024), the authors identified a list of STEAM behaviors supportive playground settings and landscape elements that offer the most impactful STEAM learning experiences for children aged three to five (see

Table 1. Literature-based STEAM behaviors supportive settings and landscape elements.

Reviewed Studies	STEAM Behaviors	Supportive Settings/Landscape Elements
Children have numerous opportunities to engage in science activities in their everyday outdoor environment. Activities like gathering pinecones, observing a spider’s web, or watching fish move can spark their interest in science. Such experiences cater to children’s inherent curiosity and encourage them to explore further (Tu, 2006).	Observing Exploring Counting	Loose Parts Play Wildlife Habitat
The outdoor environment provides volitional learning opportunities that allow children to manipulate elements of the outdoor setting. Places to dig, watery places, and sandy areas where loose parts provide tools for children’s imagination and increase their ability to mold, shape, shift, press, and drizzle (Herrington & Lesmeister, 2006).	Observing Exploring Hypothesis/Cause and Effect Building Measuring Making an Art	Sand Play Digging Water Play Loose Parts Play
Children develop eye–hand coordination while pouring, scouring, gripping, and squeezing activities and strengthen tiny muscles when digging, ladling, carrying, and organizing materials. Because children learn about measuring, comparison, observation, and sharing objects, their cognitive, social, and language skills improve (Kostelnik et al., 2011).	Observing Exploring Measuring Comparing Sorting Asking Questions	Garden Sand Play Water Play Loose Parts Play Digging
While children were busy running, climbing, and splashing, they were often engaged in exploratory science learning by interacting with their environment, making inquiries, or carrying out plans (E. A. Worch & Haney, 2011).	Observing Exploring Hypothesis/Cause and Effect Asking Questions	Multipurpose Lawn Fixed Play Structure Water Play
Fjørtoft and Sageie (2000) identified that various landscape features, including the type and density of vegetation, the slope, and the roughness of the terrain, significantly influence children’s play activities. Children were found to choose play areas based on these landscape characteristics. Additionally, changes in the landscape with the seasons were observed to affect children’s seasonal play preferences, indicating a dynamic interaction between the natural environment and play behavior (Ernst, 2014).	Observing Exploring Hypothesis/Cause and Effect Asking Questions Comparing.	Plants Garden Topography and Landforms
A large grassy area where children can run freely; a number of areas with each supporting a different kind of play activity; pathways to explore that are surrounded by interesting vegetation and stepping stones through garden areas; a constantly changing supply of materials and flexible play equipment with an emphasis on natural or recycled items and loose, moveable elements that children can manipulate; plants of differing heights used in creative ways; garden areas for children to grow and collect food; areas for digging; diverse and natural ground surfaces; and special features such as trickle streams or butterfly houses. In essence, play spaces containing elements such as these have the potential to become “a sea of natural sensory stimuli for children” (Davis, 2004).	Observing Exploring Hypothesis/Cause and Effect Asking questions Building Sorting Measuring Comparing Counting Language and Literacy	Multipurpose Lawn Primary Pathway Sensory Pathway Sensory Garden Flexible Play Equipment Loose Parts Play Sand Play Wildlife Habitat
Some inquiry-based or project-based learning examples include planting and tending a garden, cooking with vegetables and fruits, composting with worms, and observing and recording the life cycles of plants and animals (Bartolini, 2021).	Observing Exploring Hypothesis/Cause and Effect Asking questions Measuring Comparing Language and Literacy	Plants Sensory Garden Wildlife Habitat
Creating small, intimate, and “private” spaces conveys Anchorage Park Kindergarten’s belief in children’s competencies to imagine, reflect, wonder, and communicate while relaxing alone or with others. Designing with interesting fabrics and patterns, sheer drapery, wind chimes, and books creates an inviting time and space for curious minds to ponder (Bartolini, 2021).	Observing Exploring Asking Questions Building Making Art Music Language and Literacy	Acoustic Play Settings Outdoor Reading and Language Play Natural Healing and Relaxation Area
Signs can be an important element of pathway settings. They support a feeling of exploration and discovery by providing cues and information to enhance the learning process (Moore & Cooper, 2014)	Observing Exploring Asking questions Comparing Language and Literacy Signs	Primary Pathways Signage
Plants provide loose parts and play props, including leaves, flowers, fruit, nuts, seeds, and small sticks. Together with soil, sand, and water, manipulative settings can be designed and managed to extend the play and learning affordances of static, fixed structures (Moore & Cooper, 2014).	Diverse Affordances	Sand Play Digging Water Play Loose Parts Play

). These examples show how STEAM concepts can be integrated into and form a key part of the outdoor playground setting.

Play and learning occur more readily in spaces that offer various possibilities for action, known as affordances, which are the potential activities a space allows (Gibson, 1977). The structured table above illustrates how diverse outdoor landscape elements enable a wide range of STEAM-related behaviors. These elements exemplify how both natural and designed environments contribute to meaningful, self-directed learning. Drawing from this literature, it becomes evident that the design, complexity, and variety of these outdoor elements are not incidental but central to promoting STEAM learning. It is thus critical for educators and designers to recognize that children may interact with these affordances in unexpected and developmentally rich ways, often beyond the intended use by adults (Tunnicliffe & Kennedy, 2022).

This theoretical lens of affordance provides the foundation for exploring how evidence-based playground designs influence children’s informal STEAM behaviors. To explore the unique potential of the landscape elements of an outdoor playground in relation to early STEAM education, the following research questions were formulated:

• How does evidence-based playground design (temporary landscape interventions) influence the frequency and diversity of children’s STEAM-related behaviors in informal learning environments?
• Which specific landscape elements and affordances most effectively support STEAM learning behaviors among preschool-aged children (ages 3–5) in a playground?

Addressing these questions offers a clearer understanding of the differing STEAM learning potentials that each landscape element/play setting may hold. Moreover, the findings can inform the selection of landscape design elements for early childhood playgrounds that effectively foster STEAM learning through unstructured play.

2. Research Method

Research through design: Research through design entails the iterative development of artifacts as a creative method for exploring and speculating on potential future scenarios. This approach is often considered engaging and intellectually rewarding, as it aligns with designers’ natural design practices while also serving as a foundation for generating new theoretical understandings (Zimmerman et al., 2010).

This study employed a research through design approach for evidence-based playground design, including a literature-based selection of landscape elements and pre- and post-intervention assessments through Environment–Behavior Mapping (E-B Mapping) as a core observational strategy. While our prior study (Trina et al., 2024) identified a set of STEAM-supportive playground elements through a comprehensive scoping review, this study takes this work further by empirically testing those elements in a real-world setting. We implemented a temporary landscape intervention based on our prior findings and collected data to assess how children’s STEAM-related behaviors changed before and after the intervention. This research thus moves from theoretical identification to applied experimentation and behavioral observation, providing empirical support for our evidence-based design approach. We explored the STEAM learning behaviors of children aged three to five during their outdoor playtime at a subsidized childcare center located in Lubbock, Texas.

Evidence-based playground design approach: This study developed a method for evidence-based playground design (Refshauge et al., 2015) that can serve as a practical tool for professionals in the field of landscape architecture. Brown and Corry (2011, p. 328) characterized Evidence-Based Landscape Architecture (EBLA) as the intentional and systematic application of academic research in guiding decisions regarding the planning, design, and management of landscapes (Gramkow et al., 2021). While Brown and Corry emphasize the use of scholarly evidence, Stichler and Hamilton (2008) broaden this perspective by including evidence derived not only from academic research but also from practical experience. The author’s evidence-based playground design involved the integration of previous research evidence, stakeholder input, and established design strategies to guide decisions throughout the design process. The two major phases of this approach are as follows:

(a)

Landscape Element Identification and Experimental Design:

A previously published scoping review by the authors (Trina et al., 2024) identifies 14 suitable landscape elements (Table 2) that can add affordances for STEAM learning in an outdoor play environment (Bartolini, 2021; Kostelnik et al., 2011; Tu, 2006; E. A. Worch & Haney, 2011). These landscape elements, combined with the temporary experimental design, were used to compare the STEAM learning behaviors and affordances before and after the intervention. This helped the authors not just in recognizing the effectiveness of the evidence-based design approach but also in quantitatively and qualitatively measuring their impact on preschoolers’ STEAM learning outcomes.

(b)

Pre- and Post-Intervention Assessments:

This study conducted pre- and post-intervention assessments to evaluate children’s STEAM learning progress through observational studies, e.g., E-B Mapping (Cosco et al., 2010; Monsur, 2024) and video data analysis. Observations were carried out twice prior to the intervention and twice afterward, aligning with the children’s regular outdoor play periods. A total of 21 preschool-aged children took part in the study. Researchers collected 60 pre-intervention and 78 post-intervention observation E-B mapping data points, with each session lasting 30 min. These assessments provided a comprehensive understanding of children’s learning and engagement with diverse landscape settings and elements. Such analyses are essential for empirically validating the effectiveness of landscape modifications (Moore & Cooper, 2014) in enhancing STEAM learning.

There are two major parts of the data collection and analysis methods:

• E-B Mapping is a method grounded in the delineation of researcher-defined activity zones within an outdoor play environment (Cosco et al., 2010; Morrissey et al., 2015). This approach entailed systematically documenting the frequency and nature of children’s STEAM learning behaviors as they occurred within the pre- and post-intervention playground settings. According to Cosco et al. (2010), this methodology facilitates an in-depth analysis of how specific design elements influence user behavior, enabling a nuanced understanding of “the behavioral dynamics of the built environment” (p. 514). It is particularly valuable for generating both qualitative and quantitative insights concerning the types and frequency of activities in relation to spatial features, thereby offering empirical evidence to evaluate and enhance outdoor design (Marušič & Marusic, 2012).
• In addition to E-B mapping, video data analysis was conducted to gain deeper insights into specific instances of children’s engagement with the temporary, evidence-based playground intervention. Children were video recorded for one hour on two consecutive days (30 min each) prior to the intervention and again for one hour on two consecutive days following the intervention during their unstructured free play at the selected site. A momentary time sampling method—also referred to as interval recording—was employed to examine behaviors at regular time intervals (Miller, 2010). For analytical consistency, the pre- and post-intervention recordings were segmented into 1 min intervals, and a 15 s segment was extracted from the end of each interval. This segmentation resulted in 181 behavioral observations before the intervention and 202 afterward. A qualitative content approach was used, with the MAXQDA 2022 software to code video recordings in line with the study’s research focus. Through iterative content structuring, observed behaviors were systematically assigned to specific or multiple STEAM-related categories based on predefined criteria.

As the data was organized, it became clearer which landscape settings/elements prompted specific types of engagement, allowing the theoretical framework underpinning the study to be further elaborated and refined.

2.1. Site Description—Guadalupe Learning Center, Lubbock, Texas

Participants: The study involved 21 preschool-aged children, ranging in age from 3 to 5 years, who utilized the outdoor playground. The assent of the children (aged 3 to 5 years) to participate was not obtained in this research. The parents who were willing to allow their children to participate in the observations provided their digital signatures on the consent form, which included their children’s names, and returned it. The consent forms also mentioned that participation in the research is voluntary, and if the teacher or parents of the participant children decide to consent, they also have the right to withdraw themselves or their children at any point during the research study.

Site: Early Learning Centers of Lubbock, Texas, operates five childcare facilities. Each Early Learning Center is Texas Rising Star-certified and licensed by the state of Texas. The Guadalupe Learning Center is one of them, providing subsidized childcare to low-income families in Lubbock. The center has two preschool rooms, a two-year-old room, and two nursery rooms, along with a one-year-old room. It also has two playgrounds, one for toddlers and another for preschoolers.

2.2. Existing Condition of the Playground

The preschoolers’ playground is approximately 6400 square feet (a little larger than the area of a basketball court), providing a play environment that focuses on physical activities for children. The layout dominates the space, with fixed play structures, permanent installations such as swings, a climbing frame, and an outdoor playhouse occupying the majority of the space. The existing play areas (Figure 1), characterized by flat, uniform surfaces with extensive mulch and stone chips, reflect adult-oriented preferences, limiting children’s access to natural, open-ended materials and reducing opportunities for exploratory, creative, and self-directed play.

2.3. Evidence-Based Playground Design (Temporary Intervention)

To create informal STEAM learning opportunities for children in the selected outdoor playground, the authors introduced specific landscape elements (selected through previous research) (Table 2) to foster a strong connection between children and the play environment. The temporary intervention provides a multifaceted environment that encourages the development of STEAM concepts in young children. The layout was intentionally designed to cultivate active STEAM learning by reducing the dominance of fixed play structures.

Specific zones were created to support various child-initiated activities, including gardening, exploring signs and symbols, cozy space inside a teepee, engaging in arts, manipulating loose parts play materials, building with blocks, balancing stepping stones, and exploring sand and water play areas. Also, there was a centrally located open area to support gross motor activities and creative, self-directed play.

Seating was placed near the natural shade provided by trees, which also served as an integral part of the daily outdoor experience. Strategic storage placements helped both teachers and children organize and store materials effectively. A wide array of loose parts and natural objects—such as rocks, pinecones, shells, acorns, seed pods, and branches—were introduced to enrich children’s exploratory play. These materials support sensory engagement and encourage creativity, offering lifting, carrying, constructing, or imaginative use opportunities.

Table 2. Temporary intervention elements and expected STEAM learning outcomes.

Intervention Elements *	Expected STEAM Learning Outcomes
Sand Play Structure (with shade and play tools)	Cause/Effect, Construction, Manipulative, Observation, Exploration
Water Play Wall (with play tools)	Cause/Effect, Construction, Manipulative, Observation, Exploration
Sensory Pathway (with steppingstones)	Observation, Exploration
Sensory Garden (with raised bed and climbing structure)	Observation, Exploration, Experiments, Natural Art, Counting, Sorting, Measuring, Comparing
Loose Parts Play (Acorns, Pinecones, Seed Pods, Tree Branches, Leaves)	Experiment, Exploration, Observation, Counting, Sorting, Measuring, Comparing
Wildlife/Bird, Butterfly, and Pollinator Habitat (with the bird bath and feeder)	Observation, Exploration, Language, Signs
Acoustic Play Settings (with tools)	Music, Language, Exploration, Observation, Teamwork, Signs
Art Area (with art wall and colors)	Art, Language, Exploration, Observation, Teamwork, Signs
Outdoor Classroom (with shade and seating)	Language, Literacy, Reading, Signs
Pretend and Performance/Decks, Platforms and Stages (teepee)	Performance, Signs, Language, Observation
Moveable Play Structures/ Portable Toys and Equipment (wheeled toys)	Diverse Affordances
Natural Healing and Relaxation Area (with sensory elements and plants)	Observation, Exploration, Experiments
Storage (with seating)	Diverse Affordances
Signage: Directional, Informational, Identification, and Inspirational signs	Language, Literacy, Reading, Signs

* Derived from a previously published scoping review of the authors (Trina et al., 2024).

Table 2. Temporary intervention elements and expected STEAM learning outcomes.

Intervention Elements *	Expected STEAM Learning Outcomes
Sand Play Structure (with shade and play tools)	Cause/Effect, Construction, Manipulative, Observation, Exploration
Water Play Wall (with play tools)	Cause/Effect, Construction, Manipulative, Observation, Exploration
Sensory Pathway (with steppingstones)	Observation, Exploration
Sensory Garden (with raised bed and climbing structure)	Observation, Exploration, Experiments, Natural Art, Counting, Sorting, Measuring, Comparing
Loose Parts Play (Acorns, Pinecones, Seed Pods, Tree Branches, Leaves)	Experiment, Exploration, Observation, Counting, Sorting, Measuring, Comparing
Wildlife/Bird, Butterfly, and Pollinator Habitat (with the bird bath and feeder)	Observation, Exploration, Language, Signs
Acoustic Play Settings (with tools)	Music, Language, Exploration, Observation, Teamwork, Signs
Art Area (with art wall and colors)	Art, Language, Exploration, Observation, Teamwork, Signs
Outdoor Classroom (with shade and seating)	Language, Literacy, Reading, Signs
Pretend and Performance/Decks, Platforms and Stages (teepee)	Performance, Signs, Language, Observation
Moveable Play Structures/ Portable Toys and Equipment (wheeled toys)	Diverse Affordances
Natural Healing and Relaxation Area (with sensory elements and plants)	Observation, Exploration, Experiments
Storage (with seating)	Diverse Affordances
Signage: Directional, Informational, Identification, and Inspirational signs	Language, Literacy, Reading, Signs

* Derived from a previously published scoping review of the authors (Trina et al., 2024).

Undoubtedly, in this research, the arrangement of intervention elements was also crucial. It was not just about the presence of these elements but how they were integrated into the environment. The placement of temporary intervention elements, the proximity of different elements to each other, and overall accessibility can significantly impact how children interact with the natural outdoor environment (Moore & Cooper, 2014) and, consequently, their STEAM learning experiences. In a setting thoughtfully equipped with selected materials and abundant exploration opportunities, children will naturally express their curiosity and questions verbally and through actions (Worth & Grollman, 2003). For this reason, we executed the temporary intervention covering only half of the selected playground.

Different types of activities, like sand play, water play, or multipurpose lawn areas, contribute to a diverse range of STEAM learning experiences (Trina et al., 2024). A well-placed water play area or sensory garden might encourage more interactive and exploratory learning (Herrington & Lesmeister, 2006) than if these elements were positioned in less accessible areas. Simultaneously, Malone and Tranter (2003) discovered that playgrounds best suited for outdoor learning were those that were unstructured and not explicitly designed for children’s play. Fisman (2001) identified that a mix of formal learning and informal, enjoyable experiences in these naturalized settings was most closely linked with fostering environmentally responsible behaviors in children. While a well-designed landscape is aesthetically pleasing, its success in terms of STEAM education lies in its functionality and how it engages children in learning activities. Moreover, how children use the space and interact with its intervention elements is crucial. A successful intervention should be intuitive and inviting for children, promoting exploration and learning (Moore & Wong, 1997).

2.4. Coding for Observation, Data Collection, and Data Analysis

For observation and data collection, different codes were used (

Table 3. Coding for E-B mapping and video data collection and analysis.

Play Behavior

1. Functional/Physical Play, 2. Constructive Play, 3. Dramatic Play, 4. Game with Rules, 5. No Play

Social Behavior

1. Solitary Play, 2. Parallel Play, 3. Couple, 4. Playing with a Group of Children 5. Playing with an Adult, 6. Conflict, 7. Playing with a Group of Children and Adult 8. None

Conversation

1. Self, 2. One Child, 3. Multiple Child, 4. One Adult, 5. Child + Adult, 6. Multiple Adults, 7. No Conversation

STEAM Learning Behavior

Science+ Technology + Engineering: 1. Observing, 2. Exploring, 3. Describing/Prescribing/Predicting/Concluding, 4. Hypothesis/Cause and Effect/Experiments, 5. Asking Questions, 6. Building, 7. Manipulating

Math: 1. Sorting/Classifying, 2. Measuring, 3. Comparing, 4. Counting, 5. Balancing

Arts: 1. Art, 2. Music, 3. Dance, 4. Language and Literacy, 5. Signs

Play Settings/Behavior Location

1. Sand Play/Earth Play/Mud/Digging; 2. Water Play; 3. Primary Pathways; 4. Sensory Pathway; 5. Plants: Trees, Shrubs, Edible Garden; 6. Sensory Garden/Grass Mazes and Tall Grass Areas; 7. Large Blocks and Natural Construction (Construction/Engineering); 8. Loose Parts Play; 9. Wildlife/Bird, Butterfly, and Pollinator Habitat; 10. Acoustic Play Settings; 11. Art Area; 12. Signage: Directional, Informational, Identification, Regulatory, and Inspirational Signs; 13. Outdoor Classroom; 14. Pretend and Performance/Decks, Platforms, and Stages; 15. Multipurpose Lawn; 16. Fixed Play Structures; 17. Moveable Play Structures/Portable Toys and Equipment; 18. Natural Healing and Relaxation Area.

), such as Play Behavior (play type), Social Behaviors, Conversation Types, STEAM learning behaviors, and Play Settings/Behavior Location.

Following the categorization developed by Trina et al. (2024), this study used 15 types of STEAM learning behaviors. Not only were these behaviors observed, but this study also sought to confirm whether substantive STEAM learning occurred through E-B mapping and video data. It is important to note that although a child may have demonstrated behaviors aligned with STEAM learning, this study did not seek to measure whether actual STEAM learning occurred. Instead, the categorization was used to identify behaviors indicative of engagement with STEAM learning processes.

3. Data Analysis and Findings

The GIS-based Environment–Behavior Mapping (E-B Mapping) data and video data analysis revealed notable changes in children’s play and learning behavior following the evidence-based playground design (temporary intervention), which incorporated pre-selected landscape elements through research. These elements appeared to enhance the children’s engagement with STEAM-related activities.

In the existing playground setting (Figure 2, left), the majority of the play structures were predominantly fixed and purpose-built, offering limited flexibility for manipulative or imaginative use. Fixed play structures constrained children’s opportunities for creative expression and dynamic interaction with their environment. In contrast, children’s behaviors after intervention (Figure 2, right) reflected active, systematic, and creative interactions with their surroundings. For instance, children constructed a resting space within the teepee structures and engaged in building and construction using sand. The specific types of activities chosen varied depending on the environment’s features and affordances, emphasizing the physical environment’s role in shaping STEAM learning opportunities.

3.1. GIS-Based E-B Mapping Data Comparison (Before and After Intervention Data)

This study yielded 130 valid observational records from before and after GIS-based E-B Mapping, with most children being observed multiple times. The findings indicate that children exhibited various STEAM-related learning behaviors during play activities.

Play Behavior: Comparing children’s play behavior before and after a playground intervention reveals significant shifts in the distribution and diversity of play types. Spatially, the GIS-based E-B Mapping (Figure 3) illustrates that prior to the intervention, children’s activity was predominantly concentrated in Functional/Physical Play (marked in red dots). Gray points indicate the behavior “No Play.” In contrast, the post-intervention mapping shows a wider spatial activity distribution, with more varied play types.

Figure 3 further supports the observation with clear quantitative evidence. Before the intervention, Functional/Physical Play made up the majority of play behavior at 60%. This dropped substantially to 33% after the intervention, suggesting that the children were no longer restricted to only physically active play. In turn, Constructive Play rose dramatically from 17% to 41%, reflecting a likely introduction of materials or spaces conducive to building and creative activities. This shift indicates a positive development in the STEAM-supportive play environment, as constructive play is closely associated with problem-solving and fine motor skill development.

Interestingly, Dramatic Play saw a slight decrease (15% to 13%), which might reflect a natural redistribution rather than a lack of resources for imaginative play. It is possible that the increase in other types of play drew children away from dramatic scenarios or that such behavior became integrated into other categories like constructive or sensory play. It is also possible that children engaged in exploratory play with the new materials and would increase imaginative play once they were familiar with the materials. In summary, the intervention significantly improved the playground by not only diversifying the types of play children engaged in but also by making better use of the space. The shift away from predominantly physical activity to a more balanced mix that includes constructive and sensory play demonstrates a more developmentally supportive environment.

Conversation: The E-B Mapping data (Figure 4) provides a visual representation of where different types of conversations occur across the playground before and after the intervention. In the pre-intervention map, gray dots representing “No Conversation” dominate much of the playground, indicating limited social interaction. Only a few scattered points reflect interactions involving one child, an adult, or self-talk, revealing that social engagement was both sparse and localized. After the intervention, however, the map becomes far more vibrant and active, with a diverse spread of conversation types, particularly among children, appearing throughout spaces. This suggests the redesigned environment encouraged more frequent and widespread social encounters, turning previously quiet or underutilized zones into areas of interaction.

The bar charts in Figure 4 highlight a dramatic drop in “No Conversation” (from 62% to 23%) and significant increases in social interactions, most notably in multiple-child conversations, which jumped from 5% to 23%. Other categories, such as self-talk and interactions with one child or one adult, also increased, pointing to a broader range of communicative behaviors being supported by post-intervention.

Social Behavior: In the pre-intervention E-B Mapping, activity points (Figure 5) are fewer and more scattered, with limited clusters of group interaction. Most social behaviors are dominated by solitary play (purple) and parallel play (light green), indicating that children often play alone or side-by-side without direct interaction. In contrast, the post-intervention map is more varied, especially with increased appearances of group play (pink) and adult–child interactions.

The bar chart supports these spatial insights with clear quantitative data. Group play among children increased markedly from 13% to 27%, reflecting enhanced peer interaction and cooperation. Parallel play also rose from 17% to 23%, while solitary play remained stable (from 37% to 36%), suggesting that while individual play was preserved, children were also more likely to engage socially. Notably, the percentage of children not engaged in any social activity dropped from 8% to 3%, demonstrating a boost in overall participation. There were also modest increases in dyadic play (8% to 12%) and interactions involving children and adults, reinforcing the idea that the intervention successfully promoted a more socially inclusive and interactive play environment.

STEAM Behavior: The E-B mapping data (Figure 6) illustrates a notable transformation in STEAM-related behaviors within the playground before and after the intervention. In the pre-intervention map, the majority of the activity points are labeled as “No STEAM” (gray dots), indicating limited engagement with science, technology, engineering, arts, or mathematics. Only scattered activity types, such as observing, exploring, or building, are visible. However, in the post-intervention map, there is a clear shift—an abundance of colorful activity points representing diverse STEAM behaviors such as building, manipulating, asking questions, sorting/classifying, and engaging in art. This broader distribution and increased density suggest that the intervention introduced materials and settings that actively stimulated children’s exploratory and cognitive skills across multiple domains.

From the chart of Figure 6, we identify that “No STEAM” behaviors decreased dramatically from 62% to 23%, showing a major reduction in passive or non-cognitive play. The most significant increases were seen in building (8% to 19%) and art (0% to 16%), indicating that the redesign promoted creativity and constructive thinking. Other cognitive actions, such as asking questions, manipulating, and experimenting with cause and effect, also rose modestly. Although some categories like music, language, and literacy as well as comparing remained unused, the overall trend points to a more intellectually enriching play environment. This reflects a successful intervention in fostering a multidisciplinary learning experience that engages children in inquiry, observation, and creative expression—all key aspects of STEAM education.

Engagement Level in Diverse Play Settings: The spatial maps (Figure 7) demonstrate a striking shift in the use of diverse play settings before and after the intervention. Before the redesign, play was heavily concentrated around a few dominant areas, particularly fixed play structures, primary pathways, and the multipurpose lawn. This is visually evident by the clustering of darker orange dots in these zones, indicating limited engagement with diverse play elements. In contrast, the post-intervention map shows a much more diverse and evenly distributed range of activities. Brightly colored dots now span across a variety of settings, including sand and water play, art areas, loose parts play, and natural features like gardens and sensory zones, reflecting a broader spectrum of physical and sensory engagement opportunities for children throughout the space.

The use of fixed play structures dropped significantly from 35% to 11% (Figure 7), highlighting a shift away from conventional, static equipment toward more dynamic and creative play zones. Notably, sand play rose from 3% to 16%, and art areas increased to 11%, indicating a substantial rise in tactile and expressive activities. Similarly, loose parts play emerged as a new focus (9%), and other settings like pretend platforms, outdoor classrooms, and sensory gardens also saw increases. The introduction of wildlife habitats and acoustic play settings creates a multisensory, nature-integrated environment.

3.2. Video Data Analysis

The video data analysis (Figure 8) demonstrates how the children of Guadalupe Early Learning Center spend their time in their outdoor playground (before and after), which type of STEAM learning activities dominate in the existing playground and later in the playground with intervention elements, and how children use different spaces of their outdoor play area before and after the intervention.

The purpose of this video data analysis is to determine which types of play spaces in this context are associated with children’s STEAM learning behaviors (Figure 9). In this part, two short video mappings (before and after) using the MAXQDA software were created. Video data gathered from the pre- and post-intervention phases shows how children interacted with diverse play settings in the playground and revealed their favorite activities around and with different landscape elements.

Figure 9 visualizes the relationship between STEAM behaviors and specific play settings before the intervention. The x-axis lists various play areas (e.g., sand play, primary pathways, fixed play structures), while the y-axis categorizes observed behaviors into STEAM domains—Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics—along with a “No STEAM” category. In Figure 9, the size of each dot represents the frequency of observed STEAM learning behaviors within different settings. Each frequency count is indicated by a specific color, with larger red dots signifying the highest observed frequencies. For example, in the Science + Technology + Engineering category, behavior such as building/construction is most frequently observed within the sand play area.

A prominent feature in this pre-intervention analysis is the overwhelming presence of “No STEAM” behaviors, particularly concentrated in fixed play structures, multipurpose lawns, and primary pathways, as well as within pretend and performance areas. This implies that these areas were heavily used but did not engage children in cognitively rich, exploratory, or creative tasks associated with STEAM learning. There are no instances of art, music, or language/literacy. In the science and engineering domains, behaviors like building, cause-and-effect, exploration, and observation appear sporadically across a few settings—mainly sand play, water play, with movable play structures and unexpectedly in pretend and performance areas, indicating minimal support for inquiry-based or hands-on learning. Overall, the data suggest that before the intervention (Figure 10), the environment lacked diverse and intentional opportunities for STEAM engagement, heavily favoring passive or repetitive physical play over creative, experimental, or intellectual experiences.

After intervention, the blend of designed play settings, landscape elements, and the availability of natural loose-parts materials enables children to express their thoughts in innovative ways. In this study, the authors found that children’s access to diverse play settings facilitated problem-solving, ingenuity, and creativity in ways that would not likely have occurred before intervention. Children engaged in critical thinking as they purposefully selected natural materials to serve as props in their pretend play. The availability of natural loose parts ensured that children had rich and diverse resources of materials as play props, ‘affording’ them to engage in free play. The outdoor classroom becomes a curriculum-wide teaching and learning environment (Ramirez, 2024). Children can convert simple objects into objects with several functions in the playground with intervention elements (Figure 11).

Post-intervention data visualization (Figure 12) reveals a substantial increase in STEAM engagement. Compared to the pre-intervention scenario, “No STEAM” behaviors are far less dominant, while STEAM-related behaviors are more diverse and widespread across multiple settings. Key settings like loose parts play, pretend performance platforms, sensory garden, water play, and moveable/portable toys show rich clusters of behaviors, including building, manipulating, exploring, hypothesizing, asking questions, and observing behaviors associated with STEAM learning. Additionally, there is a marked increase in art-related behaviors and mathematical actions such as measuring and sorting/classifying. This indicates that the redesigned space not only encouraged more active participation but also stimulated a broader spectrum of cognitive, creative, and problem-solving skills, thereby effectively integrating STEAM learning into everyday play.

This analysis revealed that the intervention with thoughtfully selected landscape elements is the most effective for children’s STEAM concept development. Evidence-based playground design with STEAM-supportive settings will stimulate their imaginations and positively impact their cognitive development. Observing children as they play in and with diverse play settings enables us to comprehend what they are contemplating during such play. Connecting the E-B mapping observational data with video data broadened the scope of the research and generated significant findings that would encourage the use of particular landscape elements in outdoor play areas for children.

4. Discussion and Limitations

Consistent with prior research (Carr et al., 2017; Hunter-Doniger, 2021; Trina et al., 2024; Weiser, 2022), the findings of this study illustrate how evidence-based playground design (temporary intervention) with STEAM-supportive play settings significantly influenced children’s engagement in STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics) learning activities and enriched their overall experience within the playground environment. Post-intervention E-B Mapping and video analyses revealed a broader and more diverse range of STEAM-based activities among children. Notably, newly introduced settings such as the loose parts play area, sand and water stations, and the sensory garden (Davis, 2004; Herrington & Lesmeister, 2006; Moore & Cooper, 2014) afforded opportunities for construction, inquiry, classification, measurement, and other forms of scientific exploration that were largely absent in the pre-intervention phase. These settings appeared to function as catalysts for higher-order cognitive and sensorimotor behaviors aligned with early STEAM learning. Key mediators in this behavioral shift were the diversity of natural materials, the affordances embedded in the play settings, and the flexibility of the environment to support child-led exploration. These mediating variables shaped how children perceived and acted upon the playscape. For example, the teepee structure—initially conceptualized as a quiet, cozy retreat—was repurposed by children as an interactive and exploratory feature. Observations indicated that it promoted behaviors associated with manipulation, prediction, hypothesis formation, and causal reasoning. Similarly, the seating with integrated storage introduced for natural healing and relaxation (Bartolini, 2021) has become a particularly popular area, facilitating rich, imaginative, and symbolic play episodes.

Analysis of child activity through E-B Mapping and video recordings indicated a marked shift in spatial behavior following the intervention. While children’s activity in the pre-intervention phase was largely concentrated around conventional playground equipment (e.g., swings and prefabricated play structures), their post-intervention behavior demonstrated greater engagement with the newly introduced play areas. Although this shift may have limited broader spatial exploration across the playground, it concurrently fostered deeper interaction with a wider variety of play materials and landscape elements, especially those that supported STEAM learning experiences such as sand and water play, art activities, and loose parts manipulation. Prior to the intervention, the sand area was underutilized and not formally structured as a designed play setting and notably lacked a water component. Following the redesign, both E-B mapping and video analysis indicated increased engagement with sand and water. Combining sand and water play increased affordances related to material manipulation, as wet sand has a moldable property absent in dry sand. The combination (sand and water play together) offered a richer sensory experience and allowed for more diverse interactions and exploration. The combination of textures, temperatures, and the ability to mold and interact with both materials provided a wider range of opportunities for STEAM learning. Moreover, children displayed heightened sensory awareness and curiosity in their interactions with natural materials such as leaves, flowers, acorns, pinecones, and seed pods that were previously unavailable. The addition of sensory-rich features such as colorful ribbons, wind chimes, bird feeders, wind wheels, and interpretive signage (Bartolini, 2021; Davis, 2004; Moore & Cooper, 2014) further enhanced opportunities for environmental engagement. Numerous instances were observed in which children paused to attend to sensory stimuli such as birds, insects, and the movement of foliage or ribbons. These behaviors signal an expansion of the play environment’s affordances, particularly with regard to sensory and observational aspects of STEAM learning. These emergent behaviors underscore that the richness of affordances (Gibson, 1977) and the agency given to children were key mediating factors that transformed static physical space into dynamic learning environments. This potential spillover effect highlighted the importance of low-cost, sporadic, but meaningful interventions (as opposed to expensive full renovations) in early childhood outdoors for advancing STEAM learning and behaviors. This insight is especially important given that many early learning institutions, particularly childcare centers, often lack the financial resources to invest in major renovations of their outdoor environments.

Nevertheless, this study is not without limitations. One major limitation of this research is the potential novelty effect associated with the temporary landscape interventions. Since the redesigned playground elements were introduced just before the data collection, children’s increased engagement in STEAM-related activities may reflect their initial excitement and curiosity rather than a lasting behavioral change. Furthermore, the research design employed the same group of children for both the pre- and post-intervention observations. While this approach allowed for a consistent comparison of behavior changes, it introduces the possibility of familiarity effects influencing the results. That is, children’s prior knowledge of the space, coupled with their natural curiosity towards newly added elements, may have contributed to the observed increase in STEAM behaviors. This novelty effect, wherein the presence of unfamiliar materials prompts temporary increases in engagement, could partially explain the behavioral shift. Although video analysis revealed detailed, element-specific interactions that support a more sustained and affordance-driven explanation for behavioral change, it is crucial to recognize that some increase in activity may be attributed to children responding to the mere presence of something new. Future research could address this limitation by incorporating control groups or repeated post-intervention assessments over longer durations to discern the effects of novelty versus inherent design quality. Another limitation worth noting involves the absence of children’s direct voices and perspectives in interpreting their engagement with the redesigned spaces. While observational tools such as E-B Mapping and video analysis provide valuable insights into children’s behaviors, they do not fully capture how children themselves make sense of their play experiences or identify what they perceive as STEAM-related learning. This is particularly relevant in disciplines such as mathematics education, where adult-defined categories of mathematical exploration, such as sorting, classifying, or measuring, may not align with children’s actual learning experiences. Future research should therefore integrate participatory methods that center on children’s interpretations, enabling a deeper and more authentic understanding of how playground affordances shape their learning experiences.

E-B Mapping techniques were employed to document the specific areas within the outdoor playground setting where STEAM learning behaviors occur and the context of these interactions. The concept of affordance is applied to examine and compare various behavior settings like playground equipment, sand play areas, pathways, and areas with vegetation. One of the limitations of E-B Mapping is that the researcher can code only a limited number of behavioral outcomes of children. However, how children interact with each landscape element is a complex behavioral phenomenon with many possible environmental outcomes of interest. To overcome this limitation, video data collection and analysis were used. This video data coding and analysis technique was applied both before and after the temporary intervention of the outdoor playground space (

Table 4. Complementary roles of E-B Mapping data and video data in understanding children’s STEAM engagement.

Aspect	E-B Mapping Data	Video Data
Primary Focus	Tracks where and how often children engage in observable STEAM behaviors across predefined zones.	Explores how and why behaviors occur by capturing temporal sequences and contextual interactions.
Data Type	Quantitative: frequency counts are displayed through GIS mapping.	Qualitative: coded narrative sequences with social interaction data.
Behavioral Insight	Captures broad behavior patterns (e.g., building, sorting), indicating engagement trends with specific settings or landscape materials.	Reveals internal thinking processes, intentions, and problem-solving steps during behaviors like constructing or experimenting.
Affordance Recognition	Identifies zones offering strong affordances based on higher activity density (e.g., sensory gardens, loose parts zones).	Explores how children interpret and transform affordances into learning opportunities through imaginative or exploratory play.
Temporal Analysis	Provides interval-based snapshots across sessions but lacks continuous behavioral context.	Offers continuous behavior tracking, showing sequences like trial and error, reflection, or adaptive use of materials.
Spatial Insight	Precisely maps where behaviors occur and which areas are under or over-utilized after the intervention.	Mapping capability is limited, but it effectively reveals what occurred within captured spaces and how different activities are interrelated.

), enabling researchers to discern how individual children navigated and utilized the diverse setting, as well as identifying specific landscape elements and areas where they spent time—dimensions not fully captured by standard behavior mapping alone.

5. Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Research

Embedding the concept of intended affordances alongside the idea of behavior settings, this design intervention promotes purposeful interactions between children and their play environment. While children actively explored diverse play settings and exhibited creative uses of the features beyond the designers’ intentions, their creativity and imagination evolved. The study underscores the importance of recognizing that children often perceive affordances in unanticipated ways. Designers of early childhood playgrounds must remain open to this emergent and interpretive dimension, viewing it as an enriching element in the design process rather than a deviation from planned outcomes.

Rather than focusing solely on outcomes, this research emphasizes process. The findings of this study highlight the significant potential of landscape-based design interventions (evidence-based playground design approach) in supporting early STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics) education. Play environments enriched with thoughtfully selected and diverse landscape elements provided children with increased opportunities to engage with their surroundings according to their personal interests and developmental needs.

Our previous research (Trina et al., 2024) involved a comprehensive scoping review that synthesized existing literature to identify a set of key playground settings, designs, and landscape elements that support informal STEAM learning in early childhood outdoor environments. That prior work was conceptual and theoretical in nature, centered on developing a framework of affordances based on documented evidence from existing studies. It culminated in a literature-based list of recommended design features for STEAM-supportive outdoor learning environments. In contrast, this current manuscript takes an empirical and applied approach. This study builds upon our earlier framework by implementing a temporary, evidence-based landscape intervention within a real-world early childhood playground. The study is therefore not a replication or reiteration of earlier work but an empirical validation of how specific, intentionally introduced design elements influence children’s observable engagement in STEAM learning activities.

Through the research-through-design methodology, this study demonstrated that low-cost, temporary landscape interventions can meaningfully transform traditional play environments into rich, interactive learning settings. These minimal yet purposeful interventions, such as introducing loose parts, sensory gardens, sand and water play areas, and flexible play settings, enabled children to engage in a broader spectrum of STEAM behaviors. Observed increases in building, manipulating, questioning, exploring, and creative expression underscore the power of these settings to foster spontaneous, child-led inquiry without reliance on high-cost or fixed play structures. This affirms the utility of resource-conscious, scalable design solutions that center children’s curiosity.

A key contribution of the study is the illumination of how unplanned and emergent behaviors beyond the scope of the original design can lead to powerful learning outcomes. The children’s reinterpretation of materials and settings signals the importance of designing for flexibility, imagination, and open-ended use. It is not only the presence of landscape elements but also their arrangement, accessibility, and adaptability that shape how children engage in meaningful STEAM-supportive play activities.

This research could be the first step toward developing environmental indicators for assessing the quality of STEAM learning environments within playground settings. While this project’s future goal is to create an indicator to evaluate the STEAM learning potential of the playground setting, it is important to recognize that this concept remains speculative at this stage. More rigorous, evidence-based studies are needed to validate these indicators and establish their effectiveness in real-world contexts.

The ultimate goal is to create a tool that provides guidelines and measurable indicators for identifying landscape features that support STEAM learning. Such a tool would enable systematic observation of children’s behaviors, offering valuable insights for both landscape architects and educators. Landscape architects could use these insights to design landscapes that foster STEAM concept development, while educators could assess STEAM learning progress and adapt spaces to meet diverse needs. However, until further research is conducted to substantiate these indicators, this approach remains a hypothesis. Only with continued investigation and evidence-based design, can we move from conceptualization to a validated framework that truly enhances preschoolers’ STEAM learning experiences in playground environments.