Reading–Writing and Math Prerequisites as Predictors of Children’s Transition from Kindergarten to School

Abstract

The transition stage to pre-primary school represents a key event, in which the support received from family and teachers is essential in facilitating the transition and in ensuring an effective adjustment to the school environment. Our study aimed to investigate the impact of mathematical prerequisites on cognitive development, compared to the impact of reading and writing prerequisites, from the perspective of parents and early childhood educators. Thus, we quantified the impact of reading–writing and math prerequisites on children’s transition from kindergarten to school, analyzing the challenges, opportunities, and possibilities that arise. The sample consisted of 685 parents and 188 teachers, using the preschool prerequisites screening standardized questionnaire developed by the company Cognitrom, a questionnaire-survey, and the focus group method. Initially, the fidelity of the research instrument was assessed by calculating Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. The data distribution was tested using the skewness and kurtosis coefficients. Subsequently, descriptive analyses were carried out in order to provide an overview of the data collected by performing a multiple linear regression analysis. In addition, the Phi coefficient and V Cramer’s V coefficient were used to analyze the association between the research variables. By corroborating the obtained results, we can state that, from the parents’ and early childhood teachers’ perspective, math prerequisites have a greater influence on children’s cognitive development in the transition process from kindergarten to school compared to reading–writing prerequisites, confirming the general hypothesis.

1. Introduction

The transition from early childhood education to primary education represents an essential stage in a child’s educational journey, with significant implications for their physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development. In Romania, this process is regulated by a specific legislative framework. In this context, the Pre-University Education Law 198/2023 sets out the structure and duration of early education and the requirements regarding children’s transition to primary education. The educational policies regulated by the Graduate’s Education Profile (OME 6731/2023, 2023), the Curriculum for Early Childhood Education (2019), and the Fundamental Milestones in Early Learning and Development of the Child from Birth to 7 years of age (RFIDT, 2024) provide clear guidelines regarding development and learning in early childhood.

According to the Pre-University Education Law 198/2023, early education is addressed to children aged between 3 months old and 6 years old, encompassing two levels: (1) early childhood education (3 months–3 years old), (2) preschool education (3–6 years old), both comprising the lower, middle, and upper groups. These provisions are detailed in Article 15, paragraph (1), letter (a) of the law.

Aspects related to the beginning of primary education are detailed in the methodology for enrolling children in primary education approved by Order of the Minister of Education, (OME no. 4019/15.03.2024, 2024). The document specifies the age and conditions for enrolling children in preparatory classes: (1) Children who have attended preschool education and who reach the age of 6 during the current year by August 31 inclusive must be enrolled in primary education in preparatory classes. (2) Children who turn 6 years old between September 1 and December 31 of the same year and who have attended kindergarten may be enrolled in the preparatory class based on a recommendation from the preschool educational institution, which illustrates the child’s level of development. (3) For valid reasons, such as illness, lack of local infrastructure, temporary residence abroad, etc., children who have not attended preschool may be enrolled in the preparatory class, both those who turn 6 by August 31 and those who turn 6 between September 1 and December 31 of the current year. Children in this category are assessed by a committee of specialists from the Center for Educational Resources and Assistance (CJRAE). (4) Parents whose children turn 6 years old during the current year between September 1 and December 31 inclusive, who do not choose to register their children in the preparatory class for the next school year or whose level of development is not appropriate for successful completion of the preparatory class will be advised to enroll their children in kindergarten, in the eldest group of kindergarten.

It is important to mention that the assessment of children’s development level is carried out using standardized tools within the Romanian education system, including the Screening of School Readiness used in this study, or tools developed based on official documents such as the (Curriculum for Early Childhood Education, 2019), or the Graduate Training Profile. Furthermore, the assessment of children’s development is carried out throughout the teaching activities in kindergarten as part of formative assessment.

Given that, from a child development perspective, changes occurring at the age of 5–6 are continuous and sometimes accelerated, children who have received a rejection for enrollment in preparatory class may be reevaluated by specialists at educational resource and assistance centers, upon written request from their parents. The methodology for enrolling children in primary education (OME no. 4019/15.03.2024, 2024) further emphasizes that, based on a written request from the parents or legal representative, and in justified cases, the enrollment of children who turn 6 by August 31 of the current year in the preparatory class may be postponed for a maximum period of one year. This measure provides additional time to strengthen the skills needed for integration into the formal school environment, in situations where the specific requirements of this stage are not yet met, thus preventing adaptation or learning difficulties. At the same time, the involvement of parents or legal representatives in this decision reflects a child-centered approach that values collaboration between families and educational institutions to ensure a smooth transition from preschool to school.

In Romania, there is not clear evidence on the number of children who have to remain in preschool education because they are not sufficiently prepared for school or on the number of children who encounter difficulties in adapting to the preparatory class. Currently, the Ministry of Education does not publish official statistics about the number of children experiencing difficulties in adapting. However, according to a report by the Ministry of Education, more children leave the education system at the beginning of a school cycle—preparatory class, first grade, or fifth grade. This situation is caused by difficulties in adapting to school requirements, namely the transition from one level of study to another: different teaching styles, more complex curriculum requirements, significant differences in the number of hours per week devoted to study. This information is reported in the national press. The European Commission’s Education and Training Monitor (2024) report states that the early school leaving rate in Romania was 16.6% in 2023, significantly above the EU average of 9.5%. This rate is particularly high in rural areas, where it reaches 27.5%. In the 2022–2023 school year, only 74.8% of preschool-aged children were enrolled in kindergarten, down from previous years and well below the European Union average of 93.1%. This lack of participation in early education negatively affects children’s adaptation to the demands of primary school.

However, the transition issue is on the agenda of many NGOs that support parents and teachers in providing quality early education. For example, the World Vision Romania Foundation, in partnership with the OMV Petrom Foundation, has launched a program called Start in Education, through which 1500 kindergartens have received kits with teaching materials for psychomotor and cognitive skill development, as well as supplies and support materials for children’s transition from kindergarten to school. According to the program findings, the parents of the kindergarten children believe that kindergarten focuses too much on cognitive aspects in order to prepare children for school and less on the practical skills that children need to develop in order to cope in today’s society (Cult Research, 2022). As part of the program, parents had access to training courses to support their children in their transition from kindergarten to school, given that the adequate preparation of parents can make the transition smooth and successful. The foundation provided parents with a Parent Guide for Early Education for Children Aged 3 to 6, which also offers advice for the transition period.

The Graduate’s Education Profile (OME 6731/2023, 2023) public policy document plays a significant role in ensuring a comprehensive perspective on education in Romania. It describes the expectations held towards graduates of different levels of study, starting from the preschool level. The preschool graduate training profile is a benchmark document on preparing children for school. It is based on two main dimensions: (1) developmental domains, (2) priority attributes.

The five developmental domains (socio-emotional development, language development, communication and premises for reading and writing, physical development, health and personal hygiene, cognitive development and knowledge of the world, learning skills and learning attitudes) contain behavioral indicators, while the priority attributes (communicative, creative, reflective, collaborative, prospective, autonomous, resilient, responsible, ethical) are detailed by descriptors specific to this level.

Based on the behavioral indicators and specific descriptors, early childhood and primary school teachers can assess the child’s level of development before and after entering primary school. In addition to their evaluative nature, the behavioral indicators and specific descriptors provided in the Training Profile for Preschool Education Graduates (OME 6731/2023, 2023) are essential benchmarks for designing and organizing relevant educational activities tailored to different learning contexts and the individual and age characteristics of children. Obviously, children do not start from the same conditions and opportunities for development, and the family environment, socioeconomic status, level of education of parents, or limited access to resources can significantly influence the manifestation of the behaviors targeted by these indicators. This initial inequality, reflected in existing social gaps, is an important predictor of school maladjustment and difficulties encountered in the transition to school (Marryat et al., 2018; Mukhtar & Naz, 2021; Kaplan et al., 2022). Therefore, the behavioral indicators and specific descriptors provided in the training profile of preschool graduates provide a framework for early childhood teachers to create activities that support the overall development of the child. However, these indicators should be used in a flexible and contextualized way, taking into account the social gaps mentioned above.

Individual child progress monitoring tools such as the educational portfolio and the individual child progress appraisal sheet prior to entry into primary school (Annex to the Curriculum for Early Childhood Education, 2019) are designed to support the assessment of child development, thus contributing to children’s smooth transition and adjustment to the pre-primary grade (ORDIN no. 6478 from 30 August 2024, 2024).

The progress report is an assessment tool provided for in the (Curriculum for Early Childhood Education, 2019). The fundamental values underlying the development of this curriculum are integrated into a series of principles, one of which is the principle of equity and non-discrimination. According to this principle, the curriculum must ensure equal development opportunities for all children, regardless of gender, ethnicity, religion, or socioeconomic status. According to this principle, all children should have equal opportunities for development, and assessment should focus on the child’s overall level of development and progress in relation to their own potential. Mentioning criteria such as the child’s social group or the economic and social status of the family in the progress report would introduce the risk of labeling and biased assessment, which is contrary to the idea of fairness and non-discrimination in the educational process. Thus, in order to respect every child’s right to a fair and impartial assessment, the progress report is designed to reflect only aspects relevant to the child’s development. Of course, the child’s background, the family’s socioeconomic status, and the family’s level of education will be reflected in the child’s development.

The early childhood teacher who completes this progress report observes each child on an ongoing basis, thereby becoming familiar with both their level of development and their social and family background. This enables them to make a nuanced assessment that highlights both the child’s actual level of development and any external influences that may affect their development. Based on these observations and assessments, a descriptive report will be drawn up at the end of the kindergarten year for each preschooler, covering their physical development and the formation of cognitive and socio-emotional skills. This report will be included in the educational portfolio, a document that will accompany the child throughout their pre-university education, approved by OME No. 6478/2024.

According to Article 98 of the (Law on pre-university education 198/2023, 2023), the educational portfolio is an essential tool in monitoring and evaluating the progress of pupils during their pre-university education. It includes relevant documents, such as certificates of completion of study subjects, the results of summative assessments, recommendations for the remediation of possible learning deficiencies, outcomes or results of the activities carried out, and diplomas, certificates and other documents obtained through the assessment of competences acquired in formal, non-formal, or informal contexts. As of the school year of 2024–2025, the educational portfolio has been stated as compulsory for children entering the middle group and for pupils in the pre-primary grade.

In the context of the transition from kindergarten to school, both the educational portfolio and the progress sheet play an important role in providing an overview of the child’s level of development. These tools facilitate communication between preschool and primary school teachers, ensuring continuity in the educational process and adapting teaching strategies to individual needs. In the Romanian educational culture, there is considerable pressure exerted on parents, and implicitly on children, in terms of early academic preparation. An increasing number of parents wish for their children to develop the skills of writing, reading, and mental arithmetic as early as possible, preparing their children for the competition that they are unwillingly experiencing, being involved in various roles imposed by adults, parents or teachers.

On the one hand, this educational orientation puts a strong emphasis on academic performance, with academic success often equated with superior results measured by grades or marks.

On the other hand, the overall development of the child is promoted, in the sense that the child’s preparation for school must take into account not only academic skills, but also abilities, skills, and attitudes related to socio-emotional development, cognitive development, physical development, language and communication development, learning skills, and attitudes (Preda, 2019). All these dimensions contribute to the process of shaping a well-rounded individual, prepared not only for school but also for life.

Although children’s school readiness should be seen from an integrated perspective, there is still a tendency to place greater emphasis on reading, writing, and math prerequisites in particular (Pascari, 2013; Guhl, 2019).

Most practitioners consider cognitive competence as central to school adjustment and success. Cognitive competence encompasses a set of skills and mental processes necessary in the attainment of school knowledge. The main scholastic acquisitions acquired at the onset of schooling are manifested in the area of written message reception (reading), in the area of written expression (writing), and in the area of mathematics (counting, problem solving, etc.) (Pascari, 2013).

A school-ready child is characterized not only by the ability to read, write, or perform simple mathematical calculations, but also by the ability to express emotions, to interact effectively with others, to show interest in exploration and discovery, and to be autonomous and flexible in the face of new school challenges.

2. Theoretical Background

2.1. Kindergarten-to-School Transition and the Importance of School Readiness Prerequisites

The developmental stage from 61 to 84 months represents a time period destined to prepare the child for school entry and attending the pre-primary class. An increased ability to interact with objects, words, the environment, and others facilitates learning and integration into the school community. Also, cognitive, physical, and socio-emotional resources differs from earlier stages, influencing how the child perceives and responds to new educational challenges (RFIDT, 2024).

The ability to comprehend and integrate incoming information becomes more complex, allowing them to better manage school demands and peer interactions while also acquiring the prerequisites for schooling.

Preschool prerequisites are a set of academic or cognitive skills essential for the acquisition of knowledge and skills specific to the school environment. They include knowledge and attitudes that are regarded as key determinants of the development of reading, writing and mathematical problem-solving, as well as an understanding of cognitive processes. These prerequisites include recognizing and copying letters and numbers, identifying and differentiating between the dimensions of objects (size, shape, length, color, function, etc.), solving basic mathematical exercises (addition, subtraction), understanding part-to-whole relationships, and being aware of one’s own and others’ cognitive processes (Ionescu & Benga, 2007). Essentially, these prerequisites represent basic knowledge regarding school-based learning that is necessary for the acquisition of other types of knowledge.

The reading–writing prerequisites include knowledge and attitudes, the presumed precursors of reading and writing skills, thus suggesting that some of the factors that cause differences in children’s reading skills exist before school begins (Lonigan et al., 2000). Several research studies have identified a number of important factors relevant for the development of literacy skills: (1) oral language, (2) phonological processing skills, (3) knowledge about writing (Priyantini & Yusuf, 2020; Lonigan et al., 2011). According to Bingham and Patton-Terry (2013), reading–writing prerequisites include (1) phonological awareness, (2) alphabet letter recognition, (3) book knowledge and comprehension. Other research highlights that letter recognition and phonological awareness are the most important predictors of later reading skills (Chu et al., 2016). Reading is a process of converting visual symbols into meaningful language. In its early stages, it functions as an alphabetic system that involves deciphering letters into their corresponding sounds and integrating them to form words (Miclea et al., 2010).

The interplay between oral language, phonological processing skills, and knowledge about writing forms a complex network of influences that contribute to the development of reading–writing prerequisites. These factors do not act independently but interact dynamically, facilitating the child’s progress towards acquiring the skills required for reading and writing.

Mathematical prerequisites refer to the basic knowledge regarding counting, recognizing digits, distinguishing between quantities, sizes, etc. (Sophian & Wood, 1996). These elements form a basis for the further development of mathematical knowledge and procedural competencies throughout schooling, constituting an essential pillar for academic success in mathematics and other related fields such as science and technology (Suárez-Pellicioni et al., 2021; Svane et al., 2023).

Studies emphasize that mathematical activities carried out from an early age lay the foundations for critical thinking and problem-solving skill development. The importance of math prerequisites extends beyond school achievement, with implications for future career opportunities and life skills (Onoshakpokaiye, 2023).

An important aspect in the obtainment of math prerequisites during the transition from kindergarten to school is represented by the integration of digital technologies and interactive methods in activities involving preschool- and early school-age children. Thus, the use of tablets and educational video games in mathematical activities can provide personalized learning experiences that respond to children’s individual needs, thus facilitating a smoother transition to formal schooling (Pitchford, 2015; Hieftje et al., 2017).

Knowledge about cognitive functioning, also known as theory of mind, refers to the ability of understanding that other people have their own thoughts, emotions, and intentions that are distinct from those held by the child. More specifically, the child begins to become aware of the existence of an internal world specific to each individual. This ability develops significantly during the preschool period, which represents a time when children become increasingly adept at formulating hypotheses that allow them to anticipate and interpret the emotions and behaviors of others (Shaffer, 2005; Gundel & Johnson, 2013).

Schooling prerequisites play an essential role in the transition from kindergarten to school, facilitating the child’s adjustment to the demands of the new educational environment.

The transition phase to the pre-primary grade is a key moment, where support from the family and from teachers is essential in facilitating the transition and in ensuring an effective adaptation to the school environment.

Transition is defined as “the (slow or abrupt) passage from one state, situation, or idea to another” (Romanian Explanatory Dictionary, 2016, p. 1257).

Transition refers to the period involving changing roles and expectations (Lim & Jones, 2017) and begins with the preparation for entering the schooling system. This transition represents a process that unfolds over time, from the time children begin preparing for school enrolment to the time they start adjusting to the school environment, as opposed to a single point in time, such as the day or week they start school (Hirst et al., 2011). Each stage of transition is full of expectations and hopes and, at the same time, full of anxiety and uncertainty. It is very important to understand the circumstances and processes underlying the transition.

Children’s expectations of school are influenced by the expectations of adults, both parents and teachers (Chan, 2012).

The transition from kindergarten to school has a profound impact on both children and their families. This is a time when both children and parents face changes in routine, environment, and peers. A study conducted by Weiland Willaa (2023) highlights that during the transition to school, children in the Danish education system may experience a form of emotional stress comparable to the exhaustion experienced by adults in demanding professional environments. Furthermore, the transition to primary school also puts pressure on families, requiring parents to be more involved and have the right skills to support both their children’s social and emotional adjustment and their cognitive development (Pears & Kim, 2021).

In order to minimize the negative impact of the transition to primary school on children and their families, various support programs need to be developed and implemented. The effectiveness of these interventions is supported by numerous studies, which highlight their benefits in facilitating adaptation and strengthening the kindergarten–family–school relationship.

Pears et al. (2018) present in their study the effectiveness of the Kids In Transition to School (KITS) program. This program has demonstrated significant results in improving children’s academic and behavioral self-control skills, optimizing parenting practices, increasing parental involvement, and highlighting lasting positive effects on child development. The effects of the program were evaluated longitudinally, with results showing that the benefits were maintained for approximately four years after the intervention ended, until the third grade.

Other studies report various transition practices implemented by kindergarten teachers that could support families and children in entering school, the most common being school visits with preschoolers or their parents. Involvement in multiple types of transition practices has been shown to be a predictor of the development of prosocial behaviors in children. However, no significant associations have been identified between these practices and children’s attention levels or academic performance (Schulting et al., 2005; Cook & Coley, 2017; Visković, 2018).

In Romania, these transition practices are relatively common, being implemented towards the end of kindergarten for a large group of children. During this period, visits to primary school are organized, as well as joint activities with preschoolers, parents, and schoolchildren and exchanges of experience between early childhood education teachers and primary school teachers. All of this is conducted with the aim of ensuring an effective transition from kindergarten to school.

The transition from preschool to primary education is considered as an important stage for all children, marking the beginning of adjustment to a new educational environment. In many countries, the transition is viewed as the beginning of compulsory education or the onset of literacy and the development of logical–mathematical skills (González-Moreira et al., 2024), with studies showing that there is more use of verbal instruction in school and a much greater emphasis is placed on literacy and numeracy skill development (Margetts, 2005). Studies show that the fundamental structure of the brain is continuously developing, starting before birth and continuing throughout adulthood. Between the ages of 1 and 4, the human brain is highly receptive to learning math and logic, and math skills represent the most important predictor of later educational success (RFIDT, 2024).

The experiences that the child acquires during the transition from kindergarten to school have an impact on their self-image and self-confidence, also impacting the level of trust they have in their own abilities and their personal resiliency, defined as the ability to face changes. Implementing effective transition practices can strengthen children’s readiness for school, thereby helping to optimize their long-term academic outcomes (Cook & Coley, 2017; Welchons & McIntyre, 2017).

Children’s readiness for school depends on the acquisition of age-specific intellectual skills during kindergarten, but also on the extension of kindergarten-specific activities into the first year of school (games, leisure activities, etc.), thus achieving a better interplay between the two schooling cycles.

Studies on the transition from kindergarten to school indicate that this transition period is influenced by the child’s age-specific psychological development (Garpelin, 2014).

This reality reflects a number of factors that can directly influence a child’s adaptation to the new demands of the school environment. The underlying causes of this reality could be as follows: (1) low levels of socio-emotional and cognitive development, which can lead to difficulties in children’s management of new school demands and rules (Herrera & Lorenzo, 2024); (2) lack of continuity between kindergarten and preparatory class due to a reduction in play-based activities (Mirkhil, 2010); (3) absence of well-structured transition programs (Urbina-Garcia, 2020); (4) insufficient emotional support from teachers and family; (5) lack of information for parents about the transition; (6) differences between families in terms of socioeconomic status (Belsky & MacKinnon, 1994; Perry & Weinstein, 1998; Lee & Bierman, 2016; Pears & Peterson, 2018).

A successful transition is reflected in the child’s increased ability to adapt and accommodate to new educational environments (Dockett & Perry, 2007). Thus, adjustment and accommodation are fundamental aspects of the transition from preschool to primary school.

Adjustment is a dynamic process that reflects the individual’s capacity to respond positively to the demands and challenges of the external environment. This process is influenced by factors that either stimulate and foster development or restrict and inhibit progress, thus generating significant variations in the development of each individual (Verza & Verza, 2017). Adjustment requires acceptance, tolerance, and resilience on the part of the partners involved (teacher, parents, and children) in order to cope with possible confrontations that may arise in the early stages of transition.

From a scholastic perspective, adjustment can be defined as the process of establishing a balance between the development of the pupil’s personality within the framework of his/her educational pathway and the progressive requirements of the school institution, in the context of assimilating the informational content as stipulated in the school curricula.

Effective adjustment to primary education is influenced by (1) the children’s school readiness, (2) teachers’ professionalism, (3) the parents’ ability to manage the adjustment process (Slezáková, 2012).

Research suggests that about one-third of children face some difficulties when making the transition from kindergarten to school, with negative social and academic implications. When the transition is effective, children develop self-confidence and acquire the skills required for managing future changes in their lives (Kim et al., 2021; Józsa et al., 2023). The transition to a new educational environment involves not only academic challenges but also significant social adjustments. Children must adapt to new social norms and expectations, which can be discouraging without adequate support (Nowland & Qualter, 2020).

It is important to support children by carrying out specific activities that prepare them to cope with the changes that will occur in their lives, which in turn leads to a successful transition (Ring, 2018). An effective transition is one in which the end of kindergarten and the beginning of schooling blend harmoniously to create a smooth transition from one educational environment to another. Carrying out this process requires rigorous planning before, during, and after transfer to the new educational setting takes place.

2.2. Scientific Theories Underlying the Transition Process

The transition to primary school is sometimes conceptualized as “preparing for school”, entailing preparing the child for the intellectual and social challenges of school. However, the transition is a complex process involving a range of factors and stakeholders, not just the child (Graham, 2024). This process is supported by several psychological theories that explain how children adapt to changes in their lives.

Mention should be made of Piaget’s (1952) theory of cognitive development, as a process of acquiring increasingly complex and abstract cognitive skills through playful interaction with surrounding objects and symbols, driven by children’s intrinsic motivation to master their world, and later Vygotsky’s (1978) socioconstructivism, which is built on Piaget’s (1952) theory but with a greater emphasize placed on the part played by adults and teachers as representatives of the wider cultural environment of children’s development. Bo these theories, and the pedagogical approaches that developed subsequently, emphasized the role of symbolic and collaborative play as the foundation for large-scale cognitive and social development (Copple et al., 1984). When it comes to the transition to the school environment, these forms of play have a key contribution in facilitating children’s adjustment to new educational and social demands. By engaging in playful activities, children develop collaboration skills, problem-solving skills, and better regulation of emotions, all of which contribute to effective adaptation to the formative school environment.

Vygotsky’s (1978) theory has inspired researchers to study children’s development as a process of acculturation (a change in a society’s culture as a result of interaction with other cultures).

From this perspective, culture becomes an important element in children’s development, influencing not only what children learn, but also how they learn. This aspect is also found in studies initiated by Greenfield and Bruner (1966), who further developed this approach, arguing that cognitive development is not an exclusively individual process, but is deeply rooted in specific cultural contexts. Thus, social interactions, cultural practices, and the environment in which the child grows up play an essential role in the learning process and cognitive development of children.

Of great importance are the findings that suggest that young children are keenly interested in observing the everyday practices of adults in their environment, which they are drawn to imitate, for example, in the use of writing and reading techniques (Rogoff, 2003). The terms emergent literacy and emergent numeracy have been coined to refer to the spontaneous way in which children (based on imitating adults) try to teach themselves how to read and write, count, group, measure, and compare objects.

The attachment theory developed by John Bowlby (1979) is significant in highlighting the importance of developing secure attachment to and relationships between the child and the adult who is raising/caring for him/her, as the foundation for the child’s healthy social and emotional development.

According to De Wolff and Van Ijzendoorn (1997), child care that involves sensitivity and responsiveness is the strongest predictor for the development of a secure attachment relationship. Considering these findings, it is clear how important teachers and the emotional support they provide in their interactions with children are. This theory emphasizes the importance of secure and supportive relationships in children’s adaptation to new environments. Tight relationships with parents and teachers provide the child the sense of safety that is needed in order to explore the new school environment and to cope with the challenges encountered.

Bronfenbrenner’s (1986) ecological systems theory and, more recently, the ecological and dynamic model of transition (Rimm-Kaufman & Pianta, 2000) argue that children’s development and transition to school are shaped and influenced by interactions between the child and family members, the local community, the parents’ workplace, preschool, and medical institutions, as well as more distant systems such as the culture and society in which the child grows up, local and national laws, and wider political and international events.

Each child has a unique ecosystem, and the process of adjustment involves the formation of an emerging social self, which is characterized by laying the foundations of accurate self-awareness and the perception of the child’s place among others. In order to better identify with their new role, schoolchildren need to feel part of a new social group, to have their own activities acknowledged by this group, and to find a decent place within it.

Both cognitive and socio-constructivist theories argue that the transition from kindergarten to school depends not only on the child, but also on the educational, home, and social environment in which the child develops. Thus, a successful transition requires close collaboration between the family, the kindergarten, the school, and peers, as well as the use of teaching methods tailored to the needs of each child. Following the principles of these theories and applying them in practice can help to ensure an effective transition and to provide a supportive school environment that helps children adapt to their new context.

2.3. Factors Involved in the Transition Process

The transition from kindergarten to school is a crucial time in children’s development, influencing their adjustment, academic performance, and well-being. This change is complex and involves a variety of factors that can facilitate or hinder the adjustment process. The transition from kindergarten to school is influenced by both internal factors, which relate to the child’s individuality (cognitive, social, emotional, physical development, etc.), and external factors, which relate to the child’s family, social, and educational environment.

Cognitive development is defined by the child’s ability to perceive and understand the relationships between objects, phenomena, events, and characters beyond their physical attributes. It entails the acquisition of logical thinking and problem-solving skills as well as basic mathematical and environmental knowledge.

Social development refers to the child’s ability to establish and maintain interactions with adults and children. Emotional development refers to the child’s ability to perceive, express, and manage his or her own emotions and to understand and respond appropriately to the emotions of others. In turn, emotional development contributes to the development of self-concept, essential for emotional regulation and social integration.

Physical development encompasses a broad spectrum of skills and abilities, focusing on fine motor skills (the ability to hold a pencil correctly, to cut out a certain shape, to color inside the lines, etc.) and gross motor skills (coordination of movements, balance, posture, etc.), which are important aspects when transitioning to the school environment. Certainly, in the category of internal factors influencing the transition, motivation, temperament, curiosity, attention, etc., can also be included.

The child’s family environment, as the first social environment of influence, is a determining factor in the transition from kindergarten to school, significantly influencing the child’s ability to adapt to the new school context. In this regard, the study conducted by Jones et al. (2024) highlights the impact of a summer transition program in kindergarten on children’s readiness in terms of language and literacy, mathematical thinking, and social foundations, as well as family–school relationships. The results support the fact that summer transition programs strengthen family–school relationships, supporting successful school transitions and reducing potential academic achievement gaps. However, the study highlights the idea that access to and participation in high-quality summer transition programs are lower among children from disadvantaged backgrounds.

Based on these findings, it is essential to emphasize the major importance of the family and social context in the transition and adaptation process to primary school. On the one hand, low-income families often face difficulties such as a lack of financial resources, time, or institutional support, housing instability, or poor parenting skills, which can limit parents’ active involvement in supporting their children’s educational progress (Jackson & Cartmel, 2013; Fitzpatrick, 2014; Pears & Peterson, 2018).

On the other hand, children from socioeconomically developed backgrounds more often benefit from material resources, additional educational support, and access to information on school readiness.

Children from socioeconomically advantaged backgrounds generally experience a smoother transition to school compared to those from poor backgrounds. Their ability to adapt is often supported by positive personal characteristics, their parents’ attitudes toward education, and access to quality early education and care services (Rosier & McDonald, 2011).

Differences between social groups can lead to significant inequalities in terms of school readiness, adaptation to the school environment, and long-term educational performance. Therefore, educational interventions should aim to reduce these disparities and promote equity in specialized support and access to resources for all categories of children.

The transition from kindergarten to school involves the establishment of collaborative relationships between all actors involved (parents, children, teachers) in the educational process (Guo et al., 2018). Some studies highlight the importance of organizing school visits that allow children to familiarize themselves with the new educational environment (Choy & Karuppiah, 2016).

The family, as the child’s primary educator, has a significant influence in the child’s development as well as in ensuring an effective transition from kindergarten to school. Personality traits, such as self-confidence, perseverance, self-control, the ability to establish relationships, and to communicate and cooperate, significantly influence how the child learns and behaves in the school environment, depending largely on the care and education received from parents in early childhood.

Research highlights that parental active involvement in their children’s education has a significant positive impact on the child’s school readiness and adjustment to the school environment (Sheridan et al., 2010; Sheridan et al., 2020), as well as on school motivation and performance (Precht et al., 2016; Gálvez, 2020; Plúa et al., 2023).

Parental involvement is essential in assuring a successful transition, three key aspects having been highlighted as particularly important for this success: (1) emotional support (2) continuity of learning, (3) information sharing (Graham, 2024).

Parental involvement in the transitioning process can be expressed through a wide range of parenting practices, such as reading books together with the child and communicating with teachers, thus maximizing the benefits experienced by the child in adjusting to the school environment (Lau & Power, 2018).

Parents ought to manage transitions cautiously. Findings from several studies estimate that parents’ anxiety regarding the transition is a predictor of children’s distress, establishing relationships with those who support the transition being beneficial for both parent and child (Parent et al., 2019).

Findings such as those of the study conducted by Tao et al. (2019) suggest that there is a great need to provide parents with information on how to organize learning at home when starting primary school, and to also provide resources in order to prepare children both socially and emotionally. Also, it is of great importance to ensure the availability of effective channels of communication between parents and teachers.

Nationally and internationally, research on the transition from preschool to primary school, analyzing this matter from a variety of perspectives, has increased in recent years. However, given the myriad factors that contribute to making this process work effectively, there is still not a clear understanding of this transition. School readiness is a common phrase that means different things to different individuals. For some, it is a checklist of things a young child ‘should’ be able to do before starting primary school. For others, it refers to the child’s ability to make friends and have a positive attitude towards learning, utilized as an indicator of adjustment.

Some research highlights the need to organize visits to primary schools in order to familiarize children with the new environment. Primary school teachers emphasize the important role played by preschool teachers in exchanging information about life in primary school to students and their parents (Choy & Karuppiah, 2016). There are times in a person’s life when social, emotional, and cognitive development can be jeopardized by not properly managing the various new situations they face, especially during periods of transition, here including children’s transition from the private environment of family and kindergarten to the formal environment of primary school (Polivanova, 2009).

Teachers’ expectations at school are different from those that characterize preschool environments; thus, children need to adapt to these (Pianta & Cox, 2002). Therefore, the transition to school brings many challenges for children, with some children being more successful in coping with these challenges than others. The age at which a child starts formal education will influence the nature of that transition (Neuman, 2002). In most countries in Europe, the transition to formal education takes place at the age of six. For those children who have attended kindergarten, the adjustment to school life is easier because some know each other very well as they live in small communities, coming from the same kindergarten. Also, during the last kindergarten year, they were being prepared for the time when they would be starting school.

Facilitating the transition to the school environment is an essential objective in early childhood education, which requires a constant effort from all those involved (children, parents, teachers). Since development is a continuous and multidimensional process, the transition must be integrative, must stimulate all psychophysical aspects that characterize the child, and must mobilize the whole personality through appropriate strategies (Diac, 2016).

The kindergarten and the family, through the responsibilities they imply and through the complementary relationships that are established between them, are decisive factors in the transition process from kindergarten to school. Effective collaboration between the two educational environments supports the child’s adjustment to the new school and social requirements, ensuring the necessary prerequisites for an optimal start to schooling.

This collaboration aims to promote a supportive environment by ensuring effective communication between the family, kindergarten, and school (Dockett & Perry, 2001; Greubel, 2015; Samara & Ioannidi, 2019; Nafiza et al., 2024). Furthermore, as mentioned throughout this article, collaboration between the actors involved in the child’s transition to school can be strengthened through structured transition programs, visits by children to the school, joint activities between preschoolers, students, and teachers, and organizing meetings and lectures with parents on the requirements of the school environment, as well as other practices aimed at facilitating the child’s gradual adaptation to the new educational context.

Our research provides an up-to-date perspective on how important preschool prerequisites are in shaping children’s development when transitioning from preschool to primary school. We believe that the results of our study will contribute to the improvement of educational practices and encourage the development of programs designed to support both children and their families.

3. Research Methodology

Our study set out to explore the impact of reading–writing and mathematical prerequisites on children’s transition from kindergarten to school, analyzing the challenges, opportunities, and prospects involved. It focuses on identifying the factors that influence children’s transition to the school environment and the educational practices that can facilitate children’s school readiness. Therefore, the study answered a set of questions related to its purpose and hypothesis, highlighting teachers’ and parents’ perceptions regarding the importance of mathematical and reading–writing prerequisites in children’s cognitive development.

3.1. Research Questions

What is the impact of mathematical prerequisites on cognitive development, compared to reading–writing prerequisites, from the perspective of parents and early childhood teachers?

What are the dimensions that can be considered relevant predictors for children’s school readiness, from the perspective of parents and early childhood teachers?

What are the differences in the perspectives of parents and early childhood teachers, regarding children’s school readiness for the three dimensions?

3.2. Purpose

Our study aimed to investigate the impact of mathematical prerequisites on cognitive development, in comparison to the impact of reading–writing prerequisites, from the perspective of parents and early childhood teachers.

3.3. Research Objectives

O1. To identify the perspective of parents and early childhood teachers on children’s readiness for the transition from kindergarten to school, taking into account the prerequisites for schooling in three dimensions: (1) reading–writing prerequisites, (2) mathematical prerequisites, (3) knowledge regarding cognitive functioning.

O2. To identify the dimensions that could be considered relevant predictors in children’s school readiness, from the perspective of parents and early childhood teachers.

3.4. Research Hypotheses

The general hypothesis

Mathematical prerequisites have a larger influence on children’s cognitive development in the process of transitioning from kindergarten to school compared to reading–writing prerequisites, from the perspective of parents and early childhood teachers.

Secondary Hypotheses

Children’s school readiness in terms of the prerequisites for schooling in the three dimensions can influence their successful adaptation to the requirements of primary education.

Both parents and teachers will consider mathematical prerequisites to be the ones that have a larger impact on children’s cognitive development, compared to the impact of reading–writing prerequisites.

3.5. Research Variables

Independent variable: mathematical prerequisites; reading–writing prerequisites;

Dependent variable: children’s cognitive development (in the process of transitioning from kindergarten to school).

3.6. Participants

In order to obtain a sample of participants that would be representative for our study, we calculated the sample size using the GPower 3.1. version app.

Thus, the sample size was calculated taking the following aspects into account: the statistical analysis, the linear multiple regression with 2 predictors, the mean value for the effect size f² = 0.15, and its power when introducing a value of β = 0.95. Therefore, the sample power analysis yielded a minimum of 107 teachers. It was selected using the non-probability method of convenience sampling, as this method allows researchers to access participants in a convenient manner and in a relatively short time (Curelaru, 2022). It exceeded the threshold indicated by GPower, consisting of 188 early childhood education teachers who, in the 2023–2024 school year, led large groups of preschoolers aged 5–6 and their parents, numbering 685, with the analysis showing that the sample is significant.

The teachers’ and parents’ responses were reported for an approximate number of 4000 children attending early childhood education schools in the North–East region of Romania.

In the beginning of the study, both teachers and parents were informed about the duration and the ways in which the study would be conducted. They signed consent agreements in order to comply with the requirements regarding the collection of personal data as specified in the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).

3.7. Methods and Tools

In the current study, the qualitative method used was the focus group and the quantitative method was the questionnaire survey.

The focus group method was used in the beginning of the study with the teacher participants, so as to obtain a clearer view regarding the importance that the prerequisites have in the transition from kindergarten to school for three dimensions: (1) reading–writing prerequisites, (2) mathematical prerequisites, (3) knowledge about cognitive functioning. In order to analyze the data as rigorously as possible, these aspects were also measured through a questionnaire. The sample of participants was divided into groups containing a maximum number of 20 people, so that the method could be efficient. The duration of the discussion that took place in each meeting was approximately 90 min, with an additional 20–25 min question or clarification session at the end of each meeting. After each teacher took part in the focus group, they replicated the process with the parents of the children in their groups. In the focus group, participants had discussions on the importance of acquiring prerequisites for schooling across the three dimensions and their impact on children’s preparation process in the school environment. Discussions started off following these questions:

-

What does school readiness mean for you? How do prerequisites for schooling influence children’s adaptation to primary school, from the perspective of the three dimensions: (1) reading–writing prerequisites, (2) mathematical prerequisites, (3) knowledge about cognitive functioning?Which of the three dimensions is more important in preparing children for school? The participants were asked to answer each question individually before sharing their answers within the group, to identify joint perspectives. Afterwards, participants had the opportunity to summarize and analyze their views. For a more rigorous analysis, the data collected in the focus groups were correlated with the results obtained through the questionnaire-based investigation.

Combining focus groups with the questionnaire-based investigation represents an advantage in identifying the respondent’s opinions, providing both better analysis of the answers and suggestions for interpreting the data collected (Chelcea, 2022). To this end, the present research used a questionnaire-based investigation to identify the opinions of teachers and parents regarding the level of preparedness that children have in order to cope with school requirements. At this stage, the standardized questionnaire developed by the company Cognitrom, Screening of School Readiness, in its version for educators and parents, was used. This instrument measures the three dimensions previously mentioned, each version having a different number of items, as follows: (1) the version for parents contains 14 items, (2) the version for educators contains 29 items. There are 14 shared items, included in both the questionnaire for parents and the questionnaire for educators. All items are evaluated on a dichotomous scale (YES/NO). For the answer YES, 1 point is awarded, and for the answer NO, 0 points are awarded. The final score on this instrument is obtained by summing the items. A total score can be calculated for the instrument as a whole or you can obtain a score for each dimension (Miclea et al., 2010). In the current study, for hypothesis testing, three dimensions of the questionnaire were considered, for both variants (parents and educators): (1) reading–writing skills, (2) mathematical skills, (3) knowledge about cognitive functioning.

In the parents’ version, the items are classified into dimensions as follows:

Items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6—part of the reading–writing prerequisites dimension;

Items: 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12—part of the mathematical prerequisites dimension;

Items 13 and 14—part of the knowledge about the cognitive functioning dimension.

Examples of items: The child recognizes big and small print letters. The child writes letters and numbers, copying a given pattern.

In this study, we will use the phrases knowledge about cognitive functioning and cognitive development interchangeably. Thus, knowledge about cognitive functioning will entail preschoolers cognitively developing due to the processes involved in acquiring new knowledge and using it logically.

The operationalization of the knowledge about the cognitive functioning dimension through cognitive development is based on the fact that understanding one’s own and others’ cognitive processes is directly reflected in the progress and complexity of the child’s cognitive abilities.

The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for the three dimensions registered the following values: 0.88 (reading–writing prerequisites), 0.73 (mathematical prerequisites), 0.51 (knowledge about cognitive functioning). These coefficients indicate a satisfactory reliability of the questionnaire’s dimensions, except for the dimension regarding knowledge about cognitive functioning. This dimension has 2 items, which is why the mean of the inter-item correlations was taken into account, with a value between 0.15 and 0.50, allowing us to further continue the statistical analysis. (Clark & Watson, 2016; DeVellis & Thorpe, 2021) (

Table 1. Information on the sample of participants.

Participants	Bistrița-Năsăud County	Cluj County	Maramureș County	Suceava County	N
Teachers	37	22	41	88	188
Parents	133	89	202	261	685

).

In the educator’s version, the items are distributed as follows:

Items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15—part of the reading–writing prerequisites dimension;

Items 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, and 24—part of the mathematical prerequisites dimension;

Items 25, 26, 27, 28, and 29—part of the knowledge about the cognitive functioning dimension.

Examples of items: The child can read simple, three-letter words, associated with images. The child can name the days of the week in the correct order.

The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for the three dimensions registered the following values: 0.85 (reading–writing prerequisites), 0.80 (mathematical prerequisites), 0.64 (knowledge about cognitive functioning). As in the parents’ version, the dimension regarding knowledge about cognitive functioning had a lower alpha coefficient value (0.64). Due to the small number of items (5), the mean of the inter-item correlations was considered, which has a value of 0.28, falling within the reference range of 0.15 and 0.50 (

Table 2. Inter-item correlation for knowledge about cognitive functioning dimension (parent’s version).

	Mean	Min	Max	Range	Max/ Min	Variance	N
Item Means	0.943	0.911	0.975	0.064	1071	0.002	2
Inter-Item Correlations	0.411	0.411	0.411	0.000	1000	0.000	2

and

Table 3. Inter-item correlation for knowledge about cognitive functioning dimension (educator’s version).

	Mean	Min	Max	Range	Max/ Min	Variance	N
Item Means	0.940	0.883	0.973	0.090	1102	0.001	5
Inter-Item Correlations	0.285	0.108	0.504	0.395	4657	0.013	5

).

4. Results

For data analysis and result interpretation, the SPSS version 29 software was used. Before hypothesis testing, descriptive data analysis was performed for both variants (parents and educators).

The descriptive results obtained for parents are illustrated in

Table 4. Descriptive statistics—parent’s version (N = 685).

Variable	N	Min	Max	M (SD)	Skewness (SE)	Kurtosis (SE)
Reading–writing prerequisites	685	0.00	6.00	4.23 (2.15)	−0.90 (0.09)	−0.72 (0.19)
Mathematical prerequisites	685	0.00	6.00	4.05 (2.15)	−0.69 (0.09)	−0.58 (0.19)
Children’s cognitive development	685	0.00	6.00	1.89 (0.38)	−3.50 (0.09)	12.21 (0.19)

with the following values: (1) the mean score for the reading–writing prerequisites variable is 4.23 (out of a maximum value of 6), with a standard deviation of 2.15; (2) the mean score for the mathematical prerequisites variable is 4.05 (out of a maximum value of 6), with a standard deviation of 1.80, indicating moderate variability in the responses; (3) the mean score for the cognitive functioning variable is 1.89 (out of a maximum value of 2), with a standard deviation of 0.38, which indicates low variability in the responses.

The descriptive results obtained for the educators are illustrated in

Table 5. Descriptive statistics- educator’s version (N = 188).

Variable	N	Min	Max	M (SD)	Skewness (SE)	Kurtosis (SE)
Reading–writing prerequisites	188	0.00	15.00	11.10 (3.54)	−1.48 (0.18)	2.05 (0.35)
Mathematical prerequisites	188	0.00	9.00	7.63 (1.86)	−2.13 (0.18)	4.89 (0.35)
Children’s cognitive development	188	0.00	5.00	4.58 (0.80)	−2.70 (0.18)	9.35 (0.35)

. The following values were recorded: (1) for the reading–writing prerequisite variable, the mean score was 11.10 (out of a maximum value of 15), with a standard deviation of 3.54; (2) for the mathematical prerequisite variable the mean score was 7.63 (out of a maximum value of 9), with a standard deviation of 1.86; (3) for the cognitive functioning variable the mean score was 4.58 (out of a maximum value of 5), with a standard deviation of 0.80.

Normality testing was conducted using the skewness and kurtosis coefficient method. Skewness is a measure used to analyze the distribution of a data series, indicating the deviation of the empirical distribution from a symmetric distribution around the mean. Kurtosis is a measure used in the analysis of the data series distribution, indicating the degree of narrowing of a distribution or the peak increase of a distribution. The value of the skewness coefficient lies between −2 and 2, while the value of the kurtosis coefficient is between −3 and 3. The skewness coefficient is between −2 and 2 and the kurtosis coefficient between −3 and 3. While some researchers suggest that skewness and kurtosis scores between −1 and +1 are acceptable, others argue that an appropriate degree of skewness should not exceed twice the standard error of skewness (Cohen et al., 2002). As can be seen, in both variants (parents and educators), the data are not normally distributed.

To test the research hypotheses, we analyzed the inter-rater agreement (parents, educators) and performed statistical measures of association and regression analysis, obtaining the results illustrated below regarding the level of school readiness of children from the perspective of parents and early childhood teachers.

In order to answer the research question (What are the differences in the perspectives of parents and early childhood teachers on children’s school readiness on the three dimensions?), the agreement between the two groups (parents and early childhood teachers) was analyzed by means of the Phi and Cramer’s V coefficients. The coefficients were calculated in relation to the 14 questions included in both the questionnaire for educators and the questionnaire for parents (

Table 6. Children’s school readiness level from the perspective of parents and early childhood teachers.

Evaluator	% Sufficiently Ready Children	% Well-Prepared Children	% Very Well-Prepared Children
Parents	51.82%	41.17%	22.34%
Early childhood teachers	63.83%	28.72%	9.57%

).

Using the Phi and Cramer’s V coefficients, the association between the groups was checked. The results obtained indicate that, overall, the answers to the 14 questions show significant positive associations between the groups. These associations suggest a consensus in the children’s level of readiness along the three dimensions.

This result confirms that the two groups rated certain aspects similarly. The data also show that there are three responses that have no significant associations, indicating that there are discrepancies in perception regarding the evaluation criteria established by each evaluator.

Multiple linear regression was used in order to analyze the influence of the independent variables (reading–writing prerequisites and mathematical prerequisites) on the dependent variable (children’s cognitive development). In the case of the version for educators, the results of the regression analysis can be observed in the tables below (

Table 7. Positive and negative associations between groups, based on items in the observation grid.

Items	Phi Value	Sig	Observations
The child spells their name correctly in block letters, copying a given pattern	0.157	0.000	Significant positive association
The child follows the letters of a word from left to right	0.030	0.376	No significant association
The child recognizes upper and lowercase print letters	−0.069	0.042	Weak but significant negative association
The child writes letters and numbers, copying a given pattern	0.152	0.000	Significant positive association
The child writes simple words, copying a given pattern	0.151	0.000	Significant positive association
The child writes letters and numbers without following given pattern	0.129	0.000	Significant positive association
The child writes and reads numbers up to 10	0.172	0.000	Significant positive association
The child performs additions and subtractions with one or two elements within the range of 1–10	0.218	0.000	Significant positive association
The child can tell the hour and half-hour on a clock	0.110	0.01	Significant positive association
The child matches the activity to the right time of day	0.036	0.288	No significant association
The child names the days of the week in the correct succession	0.165	0.000	Significant positive association
The child relates time concepts such as today, tomorrow, yesterday to the days of the week	0.114	0.000	Significant positive association
The child knows where they learned a certain piece of information (from their teacher, grandma, TV, etc.)	−0.005	0.890	No significant association
The child asks about the meaning of words, phrases	0.021	0.527	No significant association

).

Analyzing the data illustrated in the tables above, the following results were obtained.

The R = 0.59 (R > 0.5) value suggests a moderate-to-strong relationship between the independent variables (predictors: reading–writing prerequisites and mathematical prerequisites) and the dependent variable (children’s cognitive development). The regression model is statistically significant. Sig. (p < 0.001): the variables reading–writing prerequisites and mathematical prerequisites have a significant contribution in explaining the variance of the dependent variable. The large F value (49.533) confirms the significance of the regression model, and the sum of squares indicates that the predictors explain a significant proportion of the total variability in the dependent variable. The reading–writing prerequisites predictor (t = 1.876, p = 0.062) has a small influence on the dependent variable, but is not statistically significant at the 0.05 standard level (p = 0.062 > 0.05). The mathematical prerequisites predictor (t = 4.820, p < 0.001) is statistically significant, with considerable influence on the dependent variable. Thus, from the educators’ perspective, the mathematical prerequisites predictor has a greater influence on the dependent variable compared to the reading–writing prerequisites predictor. The regression model shows that the mathematical prerequisites predictor is a better predictor of the dependent variable than the reading–writing prerequisites predictor.

Regarding the parents’ version, the results of the regression analysis can be found in the tables below (

Table 8. Multiple linear regression—version for educators.

	Model 1
Intercept	2.67 (0.20)
Mathematical prerequisites	0.34 (0.02)
Reading–writing prerequisites	0.19 (0.04)
N	188
R	0.59
R2	0.35
Adj R2	0.34
Resid. Sd	0.64

Level p < 0.001.

and

Table 9. Multiple linear regression—version for parents.

	Model 1
Intercept	1.50 (0.03)
Mathematical prerequisites	0.02 (0.00)
Reading–writing prerequisites	0.07 (0.01)
N	685
R	0.44
R2	0.19
Adj R2	0.19
Resid. Sd	0.64

Level p < 0.001.

).

Analyzing the above tables, we state the following.

The R = 0.441 value suggests a moderate linear relationship between the independent variables (predictors: reading–writing prerequisites and mathematical prerequisites) and the dependent variable (children’s cognitive development).

The regression model is statistically significant (Sig. < 0.001), suggesting that the two predictors—reading–writing prerequisites and mathematical prerequisites—significantly influence the dependent variable (children’s cognitive development).

The large F value (82.246) confirms the significance of the regression model, and the sum of squares indicates that the predictors explain a significant proportion of the total variability of the dependent variable. However, given the relatively large residual sum of squares (78.246), a large part of the variation in the dependent variable remains unexplained.

The mathematical prerequisites predictor has the largest impact on the dependent variable (Beta = 0.347, p < 0.001). The reading–writing prerequisites predictor has a small but significant impact (Beta = 0.114, p = 0.036) on the dependent variable.

The regression model suggests the fact that, from the parents’ perspective, both the reading–writing prerequisites predictor and the mathematical prerequisites predictor contribute to variations in the dependent variable, but mathematical prerequisites are a much stronger predictor than the reading–writing prerequisites predictor.

From the above results, it can be noted that, from both educators’ and parents’ perspectives, mathematical prerequisites are the ones that significantly influence children’s school readiness. These results respond to the research questions: (1) What is the impact of mathematical prerequisites on cognitive development, compared to reading–writing prerequisites, from the perspective of parents and early childhood teachers? (2) What are the dimensions that can be considered relevant predictors for children’s school readiness, from the perspective of parents and early childhood teachers?

Corroborating the obtained results, we can state that, from the perspective of parents and early childhood teachers, mathematical prerequisites have a greater influence on children’s cognitive development in the transition process from kindergarten to school compared to reading–writing prerequisites, confirming the general hypothesis.

In the process of preparing children for school, several factors influence their adaptation to the requirements of primary education. To obtain a better understanding of these mechanisms, we used a mixed research approach, combining qualitative analysis, through a focus group with parents and educators, which took place at the beginning of the study, with quantitative analysis, using a questionnaire-based investigation. On the one hand, the focus group aimed to explore parents’ and educators’ perceptions of school readiness, the importance of reading–writing and mathematical prerequisites, and knowledge about cognitive functioning in children’s process of transitioning to school. On the other hand, the quantitative regression analysis aimed to identify the influence of these prerequisites on the child’s cognitive development, a particularly important factor in the early school years.

By correlating the two types of data, we identified convergences and discrepancies between the subjective perceptions of parents and educators and the results revealed by the statistical analyses.

In response to the first question discussed during the focus group (What does school readiness mean for you?), most parents and teachers defined school readiness by referring to basic knowledge acquisition, such as recognizing and writing letters and numbers, counting, and performing simple mathematical operations. Only a small proportion of respondents mentioned the development of socio-emotional skills as an important part of school readiness.

In response to the second question of the focus group (How do prerequisites for schooling influence children’s adaptation to primary school, from the perspective of the three dimensions: (1) reading–writing prerequisites, (2) mathematical prerequisites, (3) knowledge about cognitive functioning?), the majority of participants stated that reading–writing and mathematical prerequisites are crucial for children’s cognitive development, which facilitates adaptation in a pre-primary class. In other words, a cognitively well-developed child has a high level of these prerequisites and adapts easily to the school environment.

Regarding the third question asked in the focus group (Which of the three dimensions is more important in preparing children for school?), the majority of respondents stated that mathematical prerequisites play the most important role in preparing children for school, because through them children cognitively develop, which is essential for their adaptation and success at school.

As can be seen, the qualitative analysis supports the results obtained in the quantitative analysis, with mathematical prerequisites having the greatest influence on children’s cognitive development in the transition from kindergarten to the pre-primary grade.

5. Discussion

The results of our study demonstrate that the level of development of prerequisites for reading and writing (letter recognition, phonological awareness, expressive vocabulary) and mathematical prerequisites (counting, pattern recognition, spatial relationships) have significant predictive value for a successful transition from kindergarten to school. This is consistent with several studies (Guhl, 2019; Aunio et al., 2014) which highlight that mathematical prerequisites acquired in early education are considered the strongest predictor of future academic success, recommending that teachers at this level allocate sufficient time in the daily program for their development. At the same time, Fundamental Landmarks in Early Learning and Development from Birth to 7 Years (RFIDT, 2024, p. 10) states that mathematical skills are the strongest predictor of later learning.

When school readiness is defined in educational policies as preparation for facing academic demands, conflicts arise between specific early education practices and the educational contexts that children will face in the school environment, the emphasis being on mathematical achievement and literacy (Kay, 2022).

The results of other studies (Duncan et al., 2008; Jordan et al., 2010) are consistent with the results of our study, demonstrating that mathematical prerequisites are a strong predictor of subsequent academic success.

The relationship between these prerequisites and cognitive development was documented in the scientific literature, indicating that their early development influences logical thinking, working memory, and problem-solving skills (Fuchs et al., 2016). Studies also point out that reading–writing prerequisites contribute to the development of language skills but have less impact on abstract thinking (Purpura & Ganley, 2014).

The results of our study support the idea that, from the perspective of parents and early childhood teachers, mathematical prerequisites have an essential role in preschooler’s school readiness. Moreover, the discrepancies in their perceptions suggest the need for a more applied approach to assessing children’s school readiness. Also, in the current context, putting excessive pressure on learning can negatively influence a child’s well-rounded development, which underlines the importance of finding a balance between play and academic activities.

In terms of research limitations, the responses of parents and early childhood teachers may be influenced by their personally held beliefs, previous experiences, or cultural norms, which may lead to an overestimation of the importance of some of the necessary prerequisites for early schooling. Moreover, the responses could be influenced by social desirability, which occurs when participants adjust their responses to conform to social norms or to avoid giving certain responses that are perceived as being inappropriate.

The regression analysis considered only two dimensions (reading–writing prerequisites and mathematical prerequisites) but other variables (social skills, emotional intelligence, parental support, cultural background, etc.) could also influence children’s school readiness.

School readiness and the transition from kindergarten to primary school are two concepts that can be culturally influenced. While some cultures place greater emphasis on developing the skills needed in order to cope with academic demands, others prioritize children’s socio-emotional development, gaining autonomy in organizing their own learning process or developing communication skills. Parent’s and teacher’s perceptions can be influenced by personally held beliefs, cultural backgrounds, previous life experiences, and individual interpretations about the aspects that constitute school readiness. Moreover, the cultural perspective can vary depending on the expectations regarding parent’s involvement in education, but also the expectations that parents have of the transition process.

Studies show that the transition from kindergarten to school should be carried out in an organized and structured manner. Instead of conducting multiple information activities and school visits, annual transition plans should be developed and implemented to align all those who support children in the community through annual transition programs (Bornfreund & Ewen, 2021). Studies show that Switzerland and the United Kingdom also focus on the needs of parents in the transition of their children to primary education. At the same time, Japan implements the transition from a lifelong learning perspective and sets itself the goal of developing life skills and basic learning. The transition from kindergarten to school requires both sides to establish a relationship of equality and cooperation in order to promote a smooth transition (Guo et al., 2018). Some studies have found that an effective transition from kindergarten to school is the result of close partnerships between preschool and primary school teachers, parents, and children. However, according to studies conducted in Hong Kong, there is a mismatch between the expectations that primary school teachers have of children and those of preschool teachers, raising the issue of children’s adaptation to these different sets of expectations (Chun, 2003). Other studies have highlighted that collaborative relationships between teachers and parents facilitate a smooth school transition (Dockett & Perry, 2001).

6. Conclusions

This study confirms that math prerequisites are a stronger predictor of cognitive development than reading–writing prerequisites in the kindergarten-to-school transition. These results have important implications for educational policy, suggesting that it is essential for parents and early childhood teachers to work together to more objectively assess children’s readiness, minimizing the discrepancies in perceptions between them. Furthermore, the results indicate the need for balanced educational interventions that support not only the development of mathematical skills, but also their integration with literacy, social, emotional, physical, etc., skills. A curriculum tailored to children’s needs and interests should pay more attention to learning through hands-on activities and games, so as to support the child’s overall development, not just emphasizing one or some of its dimensions.

The results suggest that both parents and early education teachers may hold traditional views regarding school readiness, which can lead to an excessive focus on letter and number recognition at the expense of the development of other types of skills. This can be avoided by taking into account the Graduate’s Education Profile (OME 6731/2023, 2023), which describes the expectations set for graduates of different levels of education, starting from preschool level.

Close collaboration between parents and teachers plays a particularly important role in children’s transition from kindergarten to school. Effective communication, together with educational initiatives dedicated to all actors involved in children’s education, can help align children’s expectations with the actual requirements of primary education, thus facilitating a smoother transition and reducing the risk of school maladjustment.