Integrating Formal and Non-Formal Learning: A Qualitative and Quantitative Study of Innovative Teaching Strategies in Secondary Schools

Abstract

This study explores the impact of integrating formal and non-formal learning in secondary school education through a mixed-methods experimental design. A total of 120 students (aged 14–16) from two secondary schools were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 60) and a control group (n = 60). The experimental group participated in a twelve-week interdisciplinary programme that combined traditional curricular subjects with non-formal educational practices such as sports, theatre, art, and community engagement, supported by digital learning platforms. Quantitative data were collected through validated instruments, while qualitative data were gathered through observations, focus groups, and semi-structured interviews with students, teachers, and parents. Statistical analyses (t-tests and ANOVA) revealed significant improvements in intrinsic motivation, psychological well-being, and sense of belonging among students in the experimental group compared to the control group. Thematic analysis of qualitative data confirmed these findings, highlighting increased collaboration, engagement, and inclusion. The results indicate that integrating formal and non-formal education fosters holistic learning, strengthens community ties, and promotes emotional and cognitive development. These findings provide empirical support for policies and pedagogical practices aimed at developing flexible, participatory, and sustainable educational models.

1. Introduction

Formal learning takes place within structured educational settings, such as schools and universities, where objectives, curricula, and assessments are clearly defined and institutionally recognised. In contrast, non-formal learning occurs in more flexible and participatory environments—such as sports associations, cultural groups, or community projects—where students can engage in experiential, collaborative, and creative activities. Despite their complementary nature, these two dimensions of learning often remain disconnected, limiting the potential for students’ holistic development. Many adolescents today experience declining motivation, disengagement, and stress within traditional academic frameworks that prioritise performance over personal growth. This study addresses these challenges by investigating whether integrating formal and non-formal learning can enhance motivation, inclusion, and well-being among secondary school students, offering evidence-based insights for rethinking contemporary educational practices. In recent years, the international educational debate has emphasised the importance of moving beyond the traditional distinction between formal and non-formal learning (European Commission, 2020). While the former takes place in structured institutional contexts such as schools and universities, the latter occurs in more flexible, often community- or association-based environments, which are capable of promoting personalised, participatory learning (Colley et al., 2019). The rigid separation of these two dimensions has often limited the potential for the holistic development of individuals, causing schools to be perceived as distant from students’ daily lives.

Against this backdrop, a novel approach is gaining traction that considers the integration of formal and non-formal learning within a unified educational framework. This approach is now considered crucial for addressing emerging challenges such as early school leaving, the inclusion of students from diverse backgrounds, the psychosocial well-being of the younger generation, and the need to develop transversal skills useful in the contemporary world (UNESCO, 2022). This study aims to empirically evaluate the effectiveness of an interdisciplinary programme integrating formal and non-formal activities in secondary schools. The study focuses particularly on three key dimensions: motivation to study, active student involvement and perceived well-being. This research contributes to the broader debate on pedagogical innovation and the transformations needed to build a truly inclusive, participatory and resilient educational model.

However, to fully understand the scope of this approach, it is useful to analyse in greater depth the meaning attributed to these educational categories, the theoretical context in which they are embedded and the main experiences gained at the international level in recent decades. Formal learning is traditionally associated with school and university courses governed by precise regulations, marked by standardised curricula and a formal assessment system that confers socially recognised qualifications. Its strength lies in its ability to provide an organised structure, consistent progression and institutional recognition. However, it is often criticised for its excessive formalism, rigidity and difficulty in adapting to specific contexts and student needs, especially in an era characterised by complexity and rapid change.

In contrast, non-formal learning takes place in flexible educational spaces, often outside the traditional school system: sports and cultural associations, youth groups, third sector organisations, artistic and community activities. It does not always lead to official certification, but it can generate meaningful experiences, transferable skills and relational values that are fully reflected in everyday life. The most recent literature (Kumpulainen & Lipponen, 2020; Boffo & Fedeli, 2019) emphasises how this approach promotes autonomy, responsibility, democratic participation and well-being.

From a historical perspective, the debate on the connection between formal and non-formal learning has deep roots. As early as the beginning of the 20th century, John Dewey proposed the idea of school as a laboratory of democracy, emphasising that authentic learning arises from the interaction between experience and critical reflection. Subsequently, Freire (1970) emphasised the need for liberating education, capable of recognising popular knowledge and promoting emancipatory processes. More recently, Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theories have further reinforced the idea that learning is a social and situated process that thrives on interactions between individuals and communities. In this sense, the rigid distinction between formal and non-formal learning appears reductive, while integration allows us to grasp the complexity of the contemporary educational experience.

From a political perspective, international institutions such as UNESCO, the OECD and the European Commission have increasingly recognised the value of integrated education. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development emphasises the importance of providing quality, equitable and inclusive education to promote lifelong learning opportunities for all (Goal 4). In this context, recognising and enhancing non-formal learning is essential for making education more equitable and accessible, particularly for young people living in disadvantaged areas or at risk of social exclusion.

In recent years, the scientific literature has offered numerous examples of integration practices. In Finland, for instance, school programmes incorporate experiential and project-based learning activities in partnership with local cultural and sports organisations (Sahlberg, 2019). In Spain, several schools have introduced active citizenship and intercultural education workshops in collaboration with youth associations. In Brazil, popular education inspired by Freire has fostered close connections between schools, communities, and the local area, promoting empowerment and social participation. These experiences demonstrate that integrating formal and non-formal education can strengthen learning and have a positive impact on social cohesion and a sense of belonging.

In addition to inclusion and participation, another crucial element concerns students’ mental and physical well-being. Numerous studies (e.g., Bailey et al., 2018; Bond et al., 2021) have demonstrated that integrating curricular activities with non-formal practices centred on sports, arts and creativity can foster intrinsic motivation, alleviate stress and enhance socio-emotional competencies such as empathy, collaboration and resilience. In a context where adolescent mental health is a major public policy concern, integrating these two educational approaches offers a promising way to promote healthier, more stimulating school environments.

Another aspect to consider is the use of digital technologies. These can be a powerful tool for connecting formal and non-formal learning experiences, enabling students to apply skills developed outside of the classroom (e.g., participation in online communities, creative production or digital activism) and enrich them with critical reflection and scientific validation. Learning thus becomes truly ubiquitous, transcending the physical and temporal boundaries of the school. Recent studies (Redecker, 2020) demonstrate how blended learning and collaborative platforms can facilitate more inclusive processes by recognising students’ diverse cognitive styles and motivations.

Integrating formal and non-formal learning is, of course, not without its challenges. One of the main obstacles is teacher training, as teachers often lack the necessary tools to manage participatory and interdisciplinary methodologies effectively. Furthermore, rigid curricula and pressure to perform well in standardised assessments can limit the opportunity to experiment with innovative approaches. There is also a risk that non-formal learning will be exploited as a mere ‘ancillary activity’ rather than being recognised for its pedagogical value. Overcoming these challenges requires profound cultural change supported by coherent education policies and structural investment.

The current debate also emphasises the importance of education oriented towards lifelong learning. Rather than being considered only in terms of the school period, the integration of formal and non-formal education should be viewed as a paradigm that accompanies the individual throughout their life. In a rapidly changing world of work characterised by the need for continuous retraining, the ability to learn in different contexts and transfer acquired skills becomes fundamental. In this sense, secondary school is a privileged testing ground for developing the cognitive and relational flexibility in young people that will be indispensable to them in the future.

In light of these considerations, the aim of this study is to empirically analyse the impact of an interdisciplinary programme combining formal and non-formal activities in secondary schools. Through an experimental approach, we will investigate three central dimensions: motivation to study, active student involvement and perceived well-being. This study forms part of a theoretical and political framework which encourages us to reconsider school as an open, interconnected ecosystem that can engage with the local area and communities. Our goal is to not only improve academic outcomes, but also contribute to the development of informed, engaged and resilient citizens who are prepared to confront the challenges of an intricate and ever-changing society.

2. Theoretical Framework

The international literature has repeatedly highlighted the benefits of education that transcends the rigid boundaries between formal and non-formal learning. Among the main theoretical strands are the following:

Inclusion and participation: Hybrid pedagogical models promote the inclusion of students with special educational needs or from marginalised socio-cultural backgrounds. These approaches foster a sense of belonging and empowerment among students (Kumpulainen & Lipponen, 2020).

Lifelong learning: Non-formal education helps to develop autonomy, critical thinking and transversal skills, which are fundamental elements for lifelong learning (Boffo & Fedeli, 2019).

Psycho-physical well-being: Physical and artistic activities, when integrated into educational programmes, have been shown to have a positive impact on emotional regulation and stress reduction (Bailey et al., 2018; Latino et al., 2021).

Technological innovation: Digital tools and online environments create new possibilities for connecting formal and non-formal contexts, allowing for the personalisation of educational pathways and the enhancement of extra-curricular learning experiences (Bond et al., 2021).

These perspectives converge in the vision of an innovative pedagogy capable of recognising education as a flexible, interconnected and resilient ecosystem (Biesta, 2020).

3. Methods

The research adopted a parallel group experimental design, integrating quantitative and qualitative methods for a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon studied.

3.1. Participants

The sample consisted of 120 secondary school students aged between 14 and 16 from two schools in the same geographical area. The students were divided into two groups:

• Experimental group (n = 60), which participated in the innovative formal/non-formal integration programme;
• Control group (n = 60), which followed the traditional curriculum without the introduction of new methodologies.

3.2. Inclusion Criteria

The inclusion criteria were as follows:

• Aged between 14 and 16;
• Regular and continuous attendance at secondary school at the start of the study;
• Informed consent signed by parents/legal guardians and willingness of the student to participate in the activities;
• Absence of clinical or psycho-educational conditions that could compromise participation in the planned activities (e.g., severe cognitive disabilities incompatible with the programme);
• Guaranteed minimum attendance of 80% of lessons during the intervention period.

3.3. Exclusion Criteria

The exclusion criteria were as follows:

• Students with a certified diagnosis of disorders requiring highly personalised individualised programmes (e.g., PEI with differentiated curriculum);
• Simultaneous participation in extracurricular projects that could interfere with the variables under study (e.g., parallel intensive sports or arts education programmes);
• Failure of families to authorise data collection and participation in the programme;
• Absences exceeding 20% of the planned activities, such as to compromise the validity of participation.

4. Educational Programme

The twelve-week experimental programme was designed to explore the possibilities of integrating formal and non-formal learning into a coherent, transformative pedagogical framework. The idea was to overcome the rigid compartmentalisation of traditional disciplines and teaching methodologies by creating a flexible educational ecosystem in which school experiences and extracurricular activities could interact and enrich each other to generate new forms of meaningful learning.

This perspective is rooted in a broad theoretical framework ranging from Dewey’s (1938) and Freinet’s (1946) active pedagogies, based on the principle of ‘learning by doing’, to the more recent concepts of situated learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991) and communities of practice. According to these approaches, learning is more authentic when embedded in real contexts and connected to shared social practices. It is within this framework that the programme has taken on educational, social and community value, as it has enabled students to experiment with roles, responsibilities and skills that extend beyond strictly academic boundaries.

One of the main components of the intervention was the development of interdisciplinary projects that connected subjects typically included in the school curriculum, such as natural sciences, history and civic education, with activities usually associated with non-formal learning, such as sport, active citizenship education and creative workshops.

For instance, one project entailed exploring the human body and biological health principles through a workshop-based approach, where students collaborated with local sports coaches and physiotherapists. This initiative consolidated scientific knowledge and applied it in practical contexts, promoting the development of motor, social, and self-care skills.

Another project integrated contemporary history with theatrical activities, with students staging key events of the 20th century and experimenting with learning through storytelling and performance. This approach is inspired by drama-based learning theories (Heathcote & Bolton, 1995), which suggest that dramatisation is an effective way to develop empathy, critical understanding, and communication skills.

The literature suggests that interdisciplinary projects positively impact student engagement and motivation (Beane, 1997; Klein, 2020). In particular, they encourage integrative learning, whereby knowledge is experienced as useful tools for addressing complex, concrete problems, rather than as fragmented and abstract.

Alongside interdisciplinary projects, the programme included a series of informal workshops designed to promote students’ well-being, creativity, and personal development. Activities tried out included theatre, sports, music and visual arts workshops. Each of these was designed as a pedagogical tool with specific educational aims, not simply as a recreational activity. For example, theatre was used to stimulate expression, self-confidence and cooperation, in line with Boal’s (1992) “theatre of the oppressed” perspective, which considers art a practice of liberation and social reflection.

When included in an educational context, sport was not limited to competition, but took on relational and inclusive values. Students were encouraged to try different, lesser-known or less popular disciplines with the aim of developing multiple skills and encouraging participation. Similar inclusive outcomes have been observed in adapted sports such as Paralympic Powerlifting, which promotes both physical and psychosocial development among people with disabilities (Aidar et al., 2022). Research by Bailey et al. (2018) has shown that integrating sport into educational programmes can enhance socio-emotional competencies such as self-regulation, resilience and collaboration.

Finally, music and visual arts were employed as alternative forms of expression capable of transcending linguistic and cultural barriers. Students created collective art installations and musical performances in collaboration with local artists, thereby strengthening their ties with the community. This approach is consistent with Eisner’s (2002) participatory art pedagogy, which views aesthetic experience as an integral part of human development.

Another innovative feature of the programme was the use of digital platforms to connect school and extracurricular activities. Students were given access to a collaborative virtual environment in which they could share materials, reflections, and creative products generated during workshops.

This approach is based on blended and connectivist learning theories (Siemens, 2005), which view learning as a dynamic network of connections between people, resources, and contexts. Using technology has enabled an educational continuum to be built, in which the boundaries between school and non-school activities have gradually become more blurred.

For instance, students documented sports and theatre activities by creating short videos and sharing their reflections online, thereby promoting metacognitive processes of critical re-elaboration. Additionally, the platform enabled the involvement of parents and the wider community, creating spaces for visibility and social recognition of the projects carried out.

The recent literature (Redecker, 2020; Bond et al., 2021) emphasises that the integration of digital technology should not be limited to an instrumental dimension; rather, it should become an integral part of inclusive, personalised pedagogy. Our programme has sought to apply this perspective by promoting the use of technology as a tool for connection, reflection, and collaboration.

Finally, a key element of the programme was engagement with the local community. By collaborating with sports, cultural, and social associations, students were able to enjoy educational experiences in their local area and recognise the community as a valuable learning environment.

This approach was inspired by Freire’s (1970) critical pedagogy, which states that authentic education arises from dialogue between the school and society. Involving the local area enriches educational opportunities and promotes a sense of active citizenship, demonstrating that learning is an integral part of community life.

Activities included visits to museums and cultural centres, collaborating with environmental associations on sustainability education projects and meeting youth associations involved in promoting human rights. These experiences enabled students to develop civic and social skills, which are now recognised as fundamental to the key competences for lifelong learning (European Council, 2018).

To ensure the validity of the research, a control group continued with traditional, mainly classroom-based teaching involving theoretical lessons and written tests. This group did not have access to creative workshops, community activities, or the systematic use of digital platforms. Comparing the two groups made it possible to highlight the impact of the experimental intervention more clearly, isolating the added value of the strategies adopted seen

Table 1. Educational Programme.

Focus	Activities	Theoretical References	Aim
Interdisciplinary Projects	- Study of the human body integrated with sport and health - Theatrical performances of historical events - Civic education projects with practical activities	Dewey (1938); Beane (1997); Lave and Wenger (1991); Klein (2020)	- Connection between theory and practice - Critical thinking - Situated learning - Interdisciplinary collaboration
Theatre, sports, music and visual arts workshops	- Theatre of the Oppressed and dramatisations - Inclusive and multidisciplinary sport - Collective artistic creations and musical performances	Boal (1992); Heathcote and Bolton (1995); Bailey et al. (2018); Eisner (2002)	- Creative expression - Empathy and cooperation - Resilience and self-regulation - Social inclusion
Digital use	- Blended platform for documenting activities - Sharing videos, reflections, materials - Involvement of families and online communities	Siemens (2005); Redecker (2020); Bond et al. (2021)	- Digital skills - Metacognition - Collaborative learning - Digital citizenship
Local community involvement	- Collaborations with sports and cultural associations - Environmental education and human rights projects - Visits to museums and civic institutions	Freire (1970); Wenger (1998); European Council (2018)	- Active citizenship - Social awareness - Sustainability education - Collective responsibility
Control Group	- Traditional classroom teaching - Theoretical lessons and written tests - No extra-curricular activities	Traditional Approach	- Basic subject-specific skills - Memorisation and reproduction of content

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5. Tools

The intervention was evaluated using standardised, qualitative tools:

• Quantitative questionnaires: the Academic Motivation Scale (Vallerand et al., 1992) for motivation and the WHO-5 Well-Being Index for psychological well-being;
• Structured observations: conducted by teachers and tutors to record classroom dynamics, collaboration and participation;
• Focus groups: with students and parents to gather perceptions, experiences and suggestions.

The quantitative data were analysed using t-tests for independent samples and ANOVA to identify significant differences between the two groups. The qualitative data, on the other hand, were subjected to thematic coding, with triangulation to ensure reliability and validity.

Qualitative data was a fundamental component of the research, allowing us to capture the experiential nuances and subjective perceptions of students, teachers and families with regard to the programme integrating formal and non-formal learning. Various tools were used for the qualitative phase:

Participant and non-participant observations conducted by teachers and researchers during laboratory and interdisciplinary activities. These observations made it possible to identify group dynamics, collaborative attitudes, levels of involvement and signs of well-being or discomfort.

Focus groups with students (6 separate meetings, each with 8–10 participants) and with parents (2 meetings with 12 participants). The focus groups were organised with open-ended questions, stimulated by educational vignettes and concrete situations, to encourage the sharing of experiences and reflection.

Semi-structured interviews with teachers and tutors (n = 12), useful for gathering professional perspectives and assessments of organisational and methodological challenges.

The collected material (transcripts, field notes, recordings) was subjected to thematic coding inspired by the model of Braun and Clarke (2006).

To ensure the validity and reliability of the interpretations, a multi-level triangulation was carried out:

• Triangulation of sources: comparison of the perceptions of students, families and teachers, in order to obtain a multi-perspective view of the same phenomenon;
• Triangulation of instruments: cross-referencing of observations, focus groups and interviews to reduce the risk of bias associated with a single method;
• Triangulation of researchers: three members of the team independently analysed part of the data, subsequently discussing any differences and reaching a shared consensus on the codes and final themes.

6. Quantitative Results

A statistical analysis of the collected data revealed significant differences between the experimental and control groups in all considered variables: intrinsic motivation, psychological well-being, and sense of belonging to the school. The results demonstrate that integrating formal and non-formal learning has positive effects on motivation and socio-emotional development. It also strengthens the bond between students and the school environment, impacting areas that are typically considered challenging to influence through traditional teaching strategies alone.

Intrinsic motivation increased by 22% in the experimental group, compared to a modest 4% increase in the control group. Analysis using t-tests for independent samples revealed a statistically significant difference (t = 4.73, p < 0.05) with a substantial effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.82). The data suggest that students involved in integrated activities developed a genuine interest in learning, shifting from extrinsic motivation (e.g., studying to get good grades or avoid punishment) to intrinsic motivation (e.g., studying out of curiosity, passion and interest). This is consistent with Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2020), which states that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are the three fundamental pillars of self-determined motivation. Non-formal activities, which are more student-centred and focused on student choices, have probably contributed to fostering a sense of autonomy, while the collaborative nature of interdisciplinary projects has reinforced the need for belonging and relatedness.

Psychological well-being, as measured by the WHO-5 Well-Being Index, increased by 18% in the experimental group compared to a marginal 3% increase in the control group. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant main effect (F(1, 118) = 6.21, p < 0.05) with an explained variance of 14%. This positive effect on psychological well-being is consistent with literature linking physical activity and creative experiences to greater resilience and stress reduction (Bailey et al., 2018; World Health Organization, 2021). Incorporating sports, theatre, music, and visual arts into the school curriculum probably provided students with opportunities to express themselves, experience positive emotions, and develop socio-emotional skills often neglected in standard curricula. Furthermore, social-emotional learning (SEL) theory (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning [CASEL], 2020) confirms that promoting skills such as self-control, empathy and interpersonal skills has a direct impact on psychological well-being and academic performance.

The sense of belonging to the school increased by 20% in the experimental group compared to 5% in the control group, and these differences were statistically significant (p < 0.05). This result is particularly relevant given that the perception of belonging is one of the main predictors of persistence in education and reduction in early school leaving (OECD, 2019). The increase in belonging in the experimental group can be attributed to greater active participation, collaboration in group projects, and interaction with the local community—factors that reduce the perceived distance between school and real life.

In this sense, the literature on community-based learning (Wenger, 1998; Etienne & Wenger-Trayner, 2020) suggests that students are more likely to be involved in and motivated by school activities when they see school as an integral part of their community.

Another interesting aspect concerns the correlation between variables. Statistical analysis revealed a positive correlation between psychological well-being and intrinsic motivation (r = 0.56, p < 0.01), suggesting that students who felt more peaceful and satisfied also tended to be more motivated to learn. Similarly, a sense of belonging was found to be correlated with both well-being (r = 0.49, p < 0.01) and motivation (r = 0.61, p < 0.01), which confirms the interconnected nature of psychosocial dimensions in education seen

Table 2. Quantitative Results.

Dimension	Experimental Group	Control Group	Difference
Intrinsic Motivation	+22%	+4%	(p < 0.05)
Psychological Well-being (WHO-5)	+18%	+3%	(p < 0.05)
Sense of Belonging	+20%	+5%	(p < 0.05)

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In summary, the quantitative results indicate that integrating formal and non-formal activities produced statistically significant improvements and substantial changes in critical areas of students’ education. These data support the hypothesis that an interdisciplinary, participatory approach to education can effectively increase engagement, prevent dropout, and promote the overall well-being of secondary school students.

7. Qualitative Results

Qualitative observations and focus groups enriched and complemented the quantitative data, providing a more nuanced and in-depth understanding of the impact of the experimental programme seen

Table 3. Qualitative Results.

Dimension	Description	Cit.
Enthusiasm and motivation	The integrated activities made learning more stimulating, increasing intrinsic motivation.	‘This is the first time I’ve ever looked forward to history class: doing it together with theatre has helped me understand things that I never really understood from books.’ (Student, 15 years old).
Collaboration	Increased cooperation, reduced conflict, greater mutual listening.	“Before, we always worked alone, but now we have learned to listen to each other more and share tasks without arguing” (Student, 14 years old).
Psychosocial well-being	Creative and sporting activities encouraged personal expression and reduced school anxiety.	“My son has always been shy, but on stage he has found a new way to communicate: this has also changed the way he approaches school” (Parent).
Sense of belonging	The involvement of the local community has strengthened the bond between the school and the local area.	“Knowing that the local gym and music association are part of our school makes us feel that studying is also useful outside the school walls” (Student, 16 years old).
Organisational challenges	Teachers highlighted difficulties in reconciling timetables, curricula and new methodologies.	“It was difficult to reconcile the programme schedule with the Ministry’s curriculum: specific training and more organisational support would be needed” (Literature teacher).

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One recurring theme that emerged from teachers’ observations was the significant increase in collaboration among students in the experimental group. Teachers noted that, over the course of several weeks, students became more inclined to collaborate, distribute tasks fairly, and assist one another when confronted with challenges. In a focus group, one student said: ‘Before, I found it difficult to talk to my classmates, but now I feel part of a group. When we work together, I enjoy myself and learn more’. This type of testimony aligns with Vygotsky’s (1978) perspective and his theory of the zone of proximal development, which states that learning is most effective through social interaction and peer collaboration.

Teachers also noted a significant decrease in interpersonal conflicts in the experimental classes. Greater cooperation created a more peaceful classroom environment where individual differences were valued rather than stigmatised. This transformation is linked to the pedagogy of Freire (1970), who argues that education should be a practice of freedom capable of promoting dialogue, mutual respect, and an appreciation of diversity.

The students in the experimental group became increasingly enthusiastic about participating in activities, particularly creative and sporting ones. During the focus group discussions, many students emphasised that the variety of activities made school ‘less boring’ and more relevant to their personal interests. One parent said: ‘My son came home talking enthusiastically about theatre and sports activities, things he never usually talks about at school’. These findings confirm the importance of an approach that values experiential learning and student-centredness, as theorised by Dewey (1938) in his conception of school as a democratic community and a laboratory of life.

Another strong theme that emerged was that of inclusion. Teachers reported that students with special educational needs or learning difficulties benefited greatly from non-formal activities, which provided an alternative means of expression to verbal communication. Artistic and physical activities enabled these students to flourish and feel competent, thereby improving their self-esteem. This finding aligns with Booth and Ainscow’s (2011) reflections on inclusive schooling, which recognises and values individual differences as resources for collective learning.

The involvement of local sports and cultural associations had a very positive impact, strengthening the link between the school and the local area. Students and families perceived the school as not only a place of education, but also as a vital community hub. This finding aligns with the literature on service learning (Eyler & Giles, 1999), which emphasises the importance of linking learning experiences with socially useful, locally rooted activities.

Integrating formal and non-formal learning has been shown to have significant positive effects in quantitative and qualitative terms. Numerical data showed consistent improvements in the investigated areas, while observations and focus groups revealed profound changes in relational dynamics, classroom climate, and perceptions of school as a place for personal and community growth. Together, these results provide a coherent picture that supports the concept of innovative, interdisciplinary pedagogy as a response to contemporary educational challenges.

8. Discussion

The results obtained confirm the validity of theories supporting the integration of formal and non-formal learning as a means of driving innovation in education (Bond et al., 2021; Kumpulainen & Lipponen, 2020). The significant increase in motivation and well-being observed in the experimental group underscores the potential of participatory and interdisciplinary methodologies to enhance learning. This is particularly relevant in light of pedagogical perspectives that, in recent decades, have advocated moving beyond transmissive logic in favour of active and collaborative approaches. Dewey (1938) warned of the dangers of a school that is closed off from the real world, and more recently, Freire (1970) emphasised the importance of dialogical and critical pedagogy that connects knowledge, experience, and social transformation. In this sense, our study reaffirms the need for schools to be seen as laboratories of life, rather than merely places of formal education.

Technology has proven to be an important mediator, connecting different experiences and providing continuity in learning. Using digital platforms, online collaborative tools, and virtual learning environments has enabled us to transcend the traditional boundaries of the classroom and foster the creation of a hybrid space where formal and non-formal learning can interact. This is consistent with research on blended learning (Garrison & Vaughan, 2013) and connected learning theory (Ito et al., 2020), which highlights how digital technologies can facilitate new forms of participation and access to knowledge.

The integration of digital technology, in particular, has fostered more personalised teaching, enabling students to manage their learning time and methods according to their needs and preferences. This strengthens student autonomy, which is one of the central objectives of Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2020), and makes the transition between school, the local community, and informal learning spaces more fluid.

Community involvement has strengthened the link between school and the local area, fostering a broader sense of belonging. Collaborations with sports, cultural, and social associations have enabled students to view the school as an integral part of community life rather than a separate institution. This corroborates the ideas surrounding community-based learning (Etienne & Wenger-Trayner, 2020), which states that learning is consolidated when embedded within communities of practice that provide meaning and continuity to experiences. Focus group testimonies highlight how families and students perceived an increase in social capital (Putnam, 2000), i.e., networks of trust, cooperation and reciprocity connecting individuals within the community. This suggests that integrated educational programmes can impact not only students, but also the wider social fabric, helping to foster active and participatory citizenship.

Despite the positive results, this study highlighted some critical issues. One of the main issues concerns the organisational burden on teachers. Designing and managing interdisciplinary and non-formal activities requires more time and resources than traditional classroom teaching.

Recent studies (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020) have also highlighted this phenomenon, emphasising that pedagogical innovation cannot be sustained without adequate institutional support and opportunities for continuing professional development. To effectively integrate the different dimensions of learning, teachers must acquire new methodological and digital skills, and learn how to manage diverse groups and collaborate with external stakeholders.

Another critical issue concerns the management of school time. The rigid structure of traditional timetables often makes it difficult to adapt to interdisciplinary projects or experiential workshops, which require longer, less fragmented sessions. The teachers involved in the project reported this obstacle, highlighting the difficulty of reconciling the curriculum calendar with the needs of more flexible learning. Several authors in the literature (Prensky, 2010; Fullan & Langworthy, 2014) emphasise that, without a systemic review of school organisation, methodological innovations risk remaining isolated and failing to produce lasting change.

Finally, the need for specific training was evident. Many teachers stated that they initially lacked confidence in using non-formal approaches or advanced digital tools, and that they had benefited from the support of external tutors and trainers. This highlights the importance of teacher professional development (OECD, 2019) in supporting educational innovation. Targeted training programmes focused on active and collaborative learning among teachers can effectively address this challenge.

These issues must be addressed through supportive educational policies and targeted investment. In particular, there is an urgent need to promote a regulatory framework that encourages collaboration between schools, local authorities, and local associations, and that recognises and values the role of non-formal education. At the same time, economic and organisational resources must be made available to reduce bureaucracy and allow for methodological experimentation. Some European countries have already launched initiatives in this direction. For instance, Finland has introduced phenomenon-based learning, which encourages interdisciplinary learning based on real projects (Lonka, 2018). Meanwhile, Portugal’s Escolas Criativas programme has promoted closer collaboration between schools and cultural centres. These examples demonstrate that, with coherent policy support, the integration of formal and non-formal education can evolve from local experimentation to systemic practice.

In conclusion, our research highlights the potential of integrating formal and non-formal education as a strategy for educational innovation and responding to 21st-century challenges. However, they also emphasise the necessity of collective commitment involving schools, teachers, local communities, and policymakers to establish the structural and cultural conditions that can sustain these practices in the long term. Only through coordinated action will it be possible to overcome the limitations of traditional schooling and build a truly inclusive, participatory educational ecosystem that promotes the overall well-being of students.

9. Conclusions

Integrating formal and non-formal learning is an effective strategy for enhancing students’ motivation, inclusion, and well-being. By combining curricular subjects with laboratory activities, digital technologies, and community collaboration, schools can foster more participatory and meaningful learning experiences. In a rapidly changing society, schools must act not only as transmitters of knowledge but also as mediators and connectors of experiences and relationships.

This approach reflects the principles of life-wide learning (Jackson, 2011) and transformative education (Mezirow, 2009), showing that lasting learning emerges when students integrate knowledge with personal and social experience. Quantitative data confirmed increased intrinsic motivation and sense of belonging, while qualitative findings highlighted improved classroom climate and relationships, supporting Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2020).

However, wider implementation requires systemic investment in three areas: (1) teacher training for methodological and digital skills; (2) educational policies promoting flexibility and school–community partnerships; (3) organisational resources that allow for co-design and innovation. Successful European examples (Lonka, 2018; OECD, 2021) demonstrate that institutional support ensures sustainable change.

Future longitudinal research should assess whether gains in motivation, well-being, and belonging persist over time and translate into transferable life skills. Ultimately, a school integrating formal and informal knowledge can become a laboratory for active, critical, and resilient citizenship—an ethical and pedagogical response to the complexities of the 21st century.