Progression of Cognitive-Affective States During Learning in Kindergarteners: Bringing Together Physiological, Observational and Performance Data
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Understanding and illustrating the progression of cognitive-affective states as kindergartners learn STEM concepts taught using constructionist and instructionist approaches through the collection and analysis of physiological, observational and performance measures.
- A synthesis of several recommendations based on our study and previous work for conducting similar studies with young children, especially the collection and analysis of physiological data.
1.1. Background
1.1.1. Cognitive Affective States in Learning
1.1.2. Assessments in Learning
- Diagnostic/assessment for learning: The teacher gathers information on the student’s existing skills, preferences, learning needs and readiness. The information is then used to plan the lessons and learning paths that are differentiated and suited to the learner’s needs and skills.
- Formative/assessment for learning: The teacher conducts the assessments to evaluate learners’ skills and the nature of students’ strengths and weaknesses, and to help develop students’ capabilities. The information is collected in a planned manner during ongoing learning and used to keep track of the progress with respect to the curricular goals and further set individual goals for learning. These may include formal and informal observations, discussions, learning conversations, questioning, conferences, homework, tasks done in groups, demonstrations, projects, portfolios, performances, peer and self-assessments, self-reflections, essays and tests [3].
- Summative/assessment of learning: These assessments occur at the end of a learning period and are designed to provide information about student achievement and also work as an accountability mechanism to evaluate teachers and schools [28]. These include performance tasks, exams, standardized exams, demonstrations, projects and essays.
1.2. Measuring Cognitive Affective States
- Context of research: Since such multi-modal sensing is central to intelligent and affect-aware tutoring systems, much of the work is conducted in specific settings, such as with intelligent tutors and learning in computer-based environments [5,42,43,44,45,46,47]. Some other research has used more experimental and laboratory settings to explore the physiological activations under stress and cognitive load (for example, [48,49,50]. These studies are indeed important to tease apart the underlying physiological phenomena when a person engages in different levels of mental effort, by eliminating a lot of confounding variables and the challenges that come with ambulatory settings. However, it is challenging to measure day-to-day phenomena in the sterile environment of a fully controlled laboratory, especially with fixed stimuli [51].
- Age group: Most of the work has focused on learning in high school and university students or adults [5,8,42,47,52,53]. One of the reasons why affect has not been explored much in children is because it is hard to measure. While it is more convenient to get performance scores and test the ability to transfer learning, it is harder to measure how the learner feels during the entire process [25].
Multi-Modal Sensing towards Detection of Cognitive-Affective States
1.3. Pedagogical Approaches
2. Method
2.1. Participants and Stimuli
2.2. Procedure
- Connect (5 min): The goal of this stage was to provide a context/problem scenario that presents an opportunity to help identify the problem and investigate how best to come up with a solution. The experimenter narrated a story to set a scene for participants. The experimenter then encouraged participants to come up with a solution. Following this, the participants were pointed to the resources at hand and encouraged to “build” the solution. The participant’s role here was to mainly attend to the experimenter to understand the challenge and appreciate that the solution is linked to a problem.
- Construct (10–15 min): The goal was to use the building instructions and build models embodying concepts related to the key learning areas. The participants were encouraged to use the cards that showed a step-by-step procedure on how to construct a pinwheel using the blocks (see Figure 1). The facilitator provided the instruction sheet and blocks and encouraged the participant to follow the sheet and build the desired model. Further, the instructions supported the development of technical knowledge and understanding. The participant built the model following instructions and had the opportunity to raise any doubts.
- Contemplate (10 min): The goal of this stage was to encourage the participants to conduct scientific investigations with their constructions. Through their investigations participants learnt to identify and compare test results.The experimenter provided questions that encouraged participants to compare two solutions and reason their answers (e.g., “Predict which of the wheels will start turning near the fan” or, “How far from the fan will the pinwheel start turning”). The participant was asked to reflect on what happened, why it happened, if it matched their predictions, how the model works, if the test was fair and in general describe what happened and to reflect and share their thoughts on questions posed by the experimenter.
- Question and answer (5 min): At the end of the session, the participants were asked five questions that tested the concepts learnt. These included multiple choice, open-ended and true/false questions.
- Teaching concept (10–15 min): The experimenter introduced the concept through a lecture where energy and wind energy were explained with definition and examples. The content taught was the same as the constructionist approach, except it took the form of a lecture.
- Videos (8–10 min): The participants viewed two videos that demonstrated the concept of energy and its forms and wind energy (what it means and uses with examples).
- Demonstration (10 min): The teacher finally demonstrated wind energy using an electric fan and manually blowing different materials such as leaves, paper, foil, tissue, ball, chair, toy etc.
- Question and answer (5 min): At the end of the session, the participants were asked five questions that tested the concepts learnt. These included multiple choice, open-ended and true/false questions.
2.3. Data Collection
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Constructionist Approach
3.2. Instructionist Approach
3.3. Comparison of the Two Approaches
3.4. Case Illustrations
4. Recommendations for Running Similar Studies
4.1. General Considerations
- Importance of establishing rapport: Any procedure with children as participants, especially those that look at emotional/physiological responses, must begin with rapport building and data must be collected from a very familiar environment. In this study, the experimenter spent a week with the participants in their classroom in art and play activities.
- Including repeated baselines and breaks between tasks: If the participants undergo different activities, it is recommended that a baseline be established before every task to estimate changes in physiological measures. It is also recommended that the entire procedure be conducted under controlled ambient conditions, as room temperature and humidity may influence the physiological and to some extend emotional responses.
- Familiarity with on-seat tasks and compliance: Since this was a preschool group who were more familiar with compliance and on-seat behaviors, there were not many issues with compliance with experimental instructions, which is an important factor for learning tasks.
- Effect on task time on physiological measurements: Time taken to complete a task has an effect on the measurements. For example, a very short task may not capture the fluctuation in the physiological parameters well. A very long task, on the other hand, may bore or tire the child, thereby discouraging him from even continuing participation. Using a combination of short and longer tasks may best mimic learning in real-life situations. Tasks can also be categorized as being consistently easy at the start and increasing in difficulty towards later parts, or have a mix of easy and difficult items interspersed. Having mixed-difficulty tasks may give a good insight into whether the measures are truly responsive to randomly occurring difficulties and cognitive load and not just built up over time.
- Keeping instructions simple and clear with ample opportunities to test understanding: It is recommended to have ample opportunities for the practice task. This is to ensure that the performance on the tasks and other physiological data collected from the task are a reflection of the ability tested by the task rather than errors resulting from misinterpretation or lack of understanding.
Specific Considerations in Eliciting EDA Data
- Capturing non-specific SCR (NS-SCRs) for learning tasks: NS-SCRs are those responses that are not associated with discrete stimuli. Such responses are not measured in terms of amplitude but rather as the number of SCRs per minute or over the time period of activity. A minimum value must be specified as the threshold. Current sensors allow for setting thresholds as low as 0.01 microsiemens, which is more appropriate for small children, as the NS-SCRs with no sudden external stimuli do not evoke the same intensity of response as in the case of sudden stimuli.
- Monitoring any drastic changes in the tonic component of SCR: According to Dawson et al., (2011) [60], increases in non-SCRs are attributed to (a) an increase in tonic arousal, energy regulation or mobilization, (b) attentional and information processing, or (c) stress and affect. The tonic arousal can be ruled out by looking at any abrupt increases in Skin Conductance Levels (SCLs) over time windows.
- Awareness of developmental effects on SCRs: SCRs in general are reported to appear later in children and even though they develop fairly well by 5–6 years [78], as we noticed in the responses in the study, it is recommended to include video taping of the sessions in order to capture other signs when physiological signals are missing. Further, since the SCR does not offer data on valence, the video-taping will facilitate interpretation of SCRs to some extent.
4.2. Specific Considerations in Eliciting HRV Data
- Accounting for data loss from insufficient contact between photoplethysmography (PPG) sensor sensor and small wrist size: In spite of the adjustable strap and getting the tightest fit, the PPG sensor for heart rate measurement sometimes did not achieve good contact with the wrist of the participant owing to their small wrist size, which resulted in data loss. In order to prevent this, we used a small pad of cloth near the strap to enable better contact of the PPG sensor on the wrist, especially for children of smaller build.
- Eliminating artifacts and accounting for data loss from optical noise: The biggest challenge with HR measurements from optical sensors is missing data from motion noise. As a result, there were periods where the HR measurements were not recorded because the child moved their hands a lot. While small movements do not affect this, sudden big movements result in a loss of data. Therefore if the child is exerting mental effort but makes a movement during this period, there is always a risk of losing the data. Therefore using video data and other contextual cues is important to decipher why data are missing or what may have ensued during this period. It is recommended to check for noise when children make general normal motor movements like moving of hands, head movements etc. when performing an activity. In our case, we did not find this to impact their skin conductance data, while some movements resulted in loss of heart rate measures for that brief period. Being aware of how such movement impact data is important when interpreting the data. For example, it helps to look at the accelerometer data to see if there was a movement if video tapes do not present very obvious movements.
5. Limitations
6. Conclusions and Future Work
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sridhar, P.K.; Nanayakkara, S. Progression of Cognitive-Affective States During Learning in Kindergarteners: Bringing Together Physiological, Observational and Performance Data. Educ. Sci. 2020, 10, 177. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10070177
Sridhar PK, Nanayakkara S. Progression of Cognitive-Affective States During Learning in Kindergarteners: Bringing Together Physiological, Observational and Performance Data. Education Sciences. 2020; 10(7):177. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10070177
Chicago/Turabian StyleSridhar, Priyashri Kamlesh, and Suranga Nanayakkara. 2020. "Progression of Cognitive-Affective States During Learning in Kindergarteners: Bringing Together Physiological, Observational and Performance Data" Education Sciences 10, no. 7: 177. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10070177