Relationships Among Childhood Bullying, Academic Satisfaction, and Mental Health Outcomes in Adults with Disabilities
Abstract
1. Introduction
1.1. Rates of Bullying
1.2. Academic Satisfaction and Bullying
1.3. Bullying and Mental Health
1.4. Academic Satisfaction and Mental Health
1.5. Purpose of the Current Study
2. Method
2.1. Participants
2.2. Procedure
2.3. Measures
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Statistics and Assumption Tests
3.2. Mediation Models
3.2.1. Depression
3.2.2. Anxiety
4. Discussion
5. Implications and Future Directions
6. Limitations
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Haile, G.; Arockiaraj, B.; Zablotsky, B.; Ng, A. Bullying Victimization Among Teenagers: United States, July 2021–December 2023; National Center for Health Statistics (U.S.): Hyattsville, MD, USA, 2024. [Google Scholar]
- Thomas, H.J.; Chan, G.C.; Scott, J.G.; Connor, J.P.; Kelly, A.B.; Williams, J. Association of Different Forms of Bullying Victimisation with Adolescents’ Psychological Distress and Reduced Emotional Wellbeing. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 2016, 50, 371–379. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Waseem, M.; Nickerson, A.B. Identifying and Addressing Bullying. In StatPearls; StatPearls Publishing: Treasure Island, FL, USA, 2025. [Google Scholar]
- Nolle, K.L.; Guerino, P.; Dinkes, R. Crime, Violence, Discipline, and Safety in U.S. Public Schools: Findings from the School Survey on Crime and Safety: 2005-06: (672732007-001) 2024. Available online: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED498378.pdf (accessed on 15 April 2025).
- Gage, N.A.; Katsiyannis, A.; Rose, C.; Adams, S.E. Disproportionate Bullying Victimization and Perpetration by Disability Status, Race, and Gender: A National Analysis. Adv. Neurodev. Disord. 2021, 5, 256–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hong, J.S.; Lee, J.H.; Rose, C.A.; Marsack Topolewski, C.N.; Daniels, D.E.; Grmusa, A. Bullying Involvement and Subtypes of Disabilities: Who Is Likely to Be Affected by What? J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pinquart, M. Systematic Review: Bullying Involvement of Children With and Without Chronic Physical Illness and/or Physical/Sensory Disability-a Meta-Analytic Comparison With Healthy/Nondisabled Peers. J. Pediatr. Psychol. 2017, 42, 245–259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alcívar Pincay, G.-A.; Aroca Valencia, E.-R.; Santana Loor, M.-K. Bullying: A Study from the Perspective of Students with Disabilities: Bullying: Un Estudio Desde la Voz del Alumnado con Discapacidad. Environ. Soc. Manag. J./Rev. Gestão Soc. Ambient. 2024, 18, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Halliday, S.; Gregory, T.; Taylor, A.; Digenis, C.; Turnbull, D. The Impact of Bullying Victimization in Early Adolescence on Subsequent Psychosocial and Academic Outcomes across the Adolescent Period: A Systematic Review. J. Sch. Violence 2021, 20, 351–373. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Samara, M.; Da Silva Nascimento, B.; El-Asam, A.; Hammuda, S.; Khattab, N. How Can Bullying Victimisation Lead to Lower Academic Achievement? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Mediating Role of Cognitive-Motivational Factors. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ladd, G.W.; Ettekal, I.; Kochenderfer-Ladd, B. Peer Victimization Trajectories from Kindergarten through High School: Differential Pathways for Children’s School Engagement and Achievement? J. Educ. Psychol. 2017, 109, 826–841. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Davis, J.P.; Merrin, G.J.; Ingram, K.M.; Espelage, D.L.; Valido, A.; El Sheikh, A.J. Examining Pathways between Bully Victimization, Depression, & School Belonging Among Early Adolescents. J. Child Fam. Stud. 2019, 28, 2365–2378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sharif-Nia, H.; Marôco, J.; Rahmatpour, P.; Allen, K.A.; Kaveh, O.; Hoseinzadeh, E. Bullying Behaviors and Intention to Drop-out among Nursing Students: The Mediation Roles of Sense of Belonging and Major Satisfaction. BMC Nurs. 2023, 22, 417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rose, C.A.; Espelage, D.L.; Monda-Amaya, L.E.; Shogren, K.A.; Aragon, S.R. Bullying and Middle School Students with and without Specific Learning Disabilities: An Examination of Social-Ecological Predictors. J. Learn. Disabil. 2015, 48, 239–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sehrish; Muhammad, D.Y.; Anis, D.F. Bullying in Universities: A Qualitative Analysis of the Lived Experiences of Students with Special Needs. sjesr 2021, 4, 388–397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Block, N. The Impact of Bullying on Academic Success for Students With and Without Exceptionalities. Master’s Thesis, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Maxfield, T.; Park, E.-Y.; Blair, K.-S.C. Synthesis of Bullying Interventions for Individuals with Disabilities: A Meta-Analysis. J. Behav. Educ. 2023, 32, 474–499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Graham, S. Victims of Bullying in Schools. Theory Into Pract. 2016, 55, 136–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Evans, C.B.R.; Cotter, K.L.; Smokowski, P.R. Giving Victims of Bullying a Voice: A Qualitative Study of Post Bullying Reactions and Coping Strategies. Child Adolesc. Soc. Work J. 2017, 34, 543–555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tong, Y.; Xie, F.; Wen, X.; Li, Y.; Yuan, M.; Zhang, X.; Chen, J.; Wang, G.; Su, P. Longitudinal Association between Bullying Victimization and Depressive Symptoms in Chinese Early Adolescents: The Effect of Life Satisfaction. Depress. Anxiety 2024, 2024, 6671415. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bhatia, R. The Impact of Bullying in Childhood and Adolescence. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry 2023, 36, 461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- deLara, E.W. Consequences of Childhood Bullying on Mental Health and Relationships for Young Adults. J. Child Fam. Stud. 2019, 28, 2379–2389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Takizawa, R.; Maughan, B.; Arseneault, L. Adult Health Outcomes of Childhood Bullying Victimization: Evidence From a Five-Decade Longitudinal British Birth Cohort. AJP 2014, 171, 777–784. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Accardo, A.L.; Neely, L.C.; Pontes, N.M.H.; Pontes, M.C.F. Bullying Victimization Is Associated with Heightened Rates of Anxiety and Depression Among Autistic and ADHD Youth: National Survey of Children’s Health 2016–2020. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Augustine, L.; Bjereld, Y.; Turner, R. The Role of Disability in the Relationship Between Mental Health and Bullying: A Focused, Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies. Child Psychiatry Hum. Dev. 2024, 55, 893–908. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rodriguez, G.; Drastal, K.; Hartley, S.L. Cross-Lagged Model of Bullying Victimization and Mental Health Problems in Children with Autism in Middle to Older Childhood. Autism 2021, 25, 90–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- King, T.; Aitken, Z.; Milner, A.; Emerson, E.; Priest, N.; Karahalios, A.; Kavanagh, A.; Blakely, T. To What Extent Is the Association between Disability and Mental Health in Adolescents Mediated by Bullying? A Causal Mediation Analysis. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2018, 47, 1402–1413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Franzen, J.; Jermann, F.; Ghisletta, P.; Rudaz, S.; Bondolfi, G.; Tran, N.T. Psychological Distress and Well-Being among Students of Health Disciplines: The Importance of Academic Satisfaction. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, Q.; Tian, L.; Huebner, E.S.; Zhu, X. Relations among Academic Achievement, Self-Esteem, and Subjective Well-Being in School among Elementary School Students: A Longitudinal Mediation Model. Sch. Psychol. 2019, 34, 328–340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cavioni, V.; Grazzani, I.; Ornaghi, V.; Agliati, A.; Pepe, A. Adolescents’ Mental Health at School: The Mediating Role of Life Satisfaction. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 720628. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, R.X.; Chen, Z. Negative School Experiences in Early Adolescence on Depressive Affect in Middle Adulthood. Adv. Life Course Res. 2021, 48, 100398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lipson, S.K.; Eisenberg, D. Mental Health and Academic Attitudes and Expectations in University Populations: Results from the Healthy Minds Study. J. Ment. Health 2018, 27, 205–213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cree, R.A. Frequent Mental Distress Among Adults, by Disability Status, Disability Type, and Selected Characteristics—United States, 2018. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2020, 69, 1238–1243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Green, J.G.; Oblath, R.; Felix, E.D.; Furlong, M.J.; Holt, M.K.; Sharkey, J.D. Initial Evidence for the Validity of the California Bullying Victimization Scale (CBVS-R) as a Retrospective Measure for Adults. Psychol. Assess. 2018, 30, 1444–1453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schmitt, N.; Oswald, F.L.; Friede, A.; Imus, A.; Merritt, S. Perceived Fit with an Academic Environment: Attitudinal and Behavioral Outcomes. J. Vocat. Behav. 2008, 72, 317–335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kroenke, K.; Spitzer, R.L.; Williams, J.B.W. The PHQ-9. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 2001, 16, 606–613. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Spitzer, R.L.; Kroenke, K.; Williams, J.B.W.; Löwe, B. A Brief Measure for Assessing Generalized Anxiety Disorder: The GAD-7. Arch. Intern. Med. 2006, 166, 1092–1097. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Copeland, W.E.; Wolke, D.; Angold, A.; Costello, E.J. Adult Psychiatric Outcomes of Bullying and Being Bullied by Peers in Childhood and Adolescence. JAMA Psychiatry 2013, 70, 419–426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hennig, T.; Jaya, E.S.; Lincoln, T.M. Bullying Mediates Between Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Childhood and Psychotic Experiences in Early Adolescence. Schizophr. Bull. 2017, 43, 1036–1044. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pellegrino, G.; Casali, N.; Meneghetti, C.; Tinti, C.; Re, A.M.; Sini, B.; Passolunghi, M.C.; Valenti, A.; Montesano, L.; Carretti, B. Universal and Specific Services for University Students with Specific Learning Disabilities: The Relation to Study Approach, Academic Achievement, and Satisfaction. Learn. Disabil. Res. Pract. 2023, 38, 274–284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tebar-Yébana, S.; Navarro-Mateu, D.; Gómez-Domínguez, M.T.; Gómez-Dominguez, V. Educational Inclusion and Satisfaction of Families of Students with Intellectual Disabilities: A Bibliometric Study. Front. Psychol. 2024, 15, 1335168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moriña, A.; Biagiotti, G. Academic Success Factors in University Students with Disabilities: A Systematic Review. Eur. J. Spec. Needs Educ. 2022, 37, 729–746. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fleming, A.R.; Oertle, K.M.; Plotner, A.J.; Hakun, J.G. Influence of Social Factors on Student Satisfaction among College Students with Disabilities. J. Coll. Stud. Dev. 2017, 58, 215–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Iyanda, A.E. Bullying Victimization of Children with Mental, Emotional, and Developmental or Behavioral (MEDB) Disorders in the United States. J. Child Adolesc. Trauma 2022, 15, 221–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bowes, L.; Maughan, B.; Ball, H.; Shakoor, S.; Ouellet-Morin, I.; Caspi, A.; Moffitt, T.E.; Arseneault, L. Chronic Bullying Victimization across School Transitions: The Role of Genetic and Environmental Influences. Dev. Psychopathol. 2013, 25, 333–346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Houtepen, L.C.; Heron, J.; Suderman, M.J.; Fraser, A.; Chittleborough, C.R.; Howe, L.D. Associations of Adverse Childhood Experiences with Educational Attainment and Adolescent Health and the Role of Family and Socioeconomic Factors: A Prospective Cohort Study in the UK. PLoS Med. 2020, 17, e1003031. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wichstrøm, L.; Belsky, J.; Berg-Nielsen, T.S. Preschool Predictors of Childhood Anxiety Disorders: A Prospective Community Study. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 2013, 54, 1327–1336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sourander, A.; Jensen, P.; Rönning, J.A.; Niemelä, S.; Helenius, H.; Sillanmäki, L.; Kumpulainen, K.; Piha, J.; Tamminen, T.; Moilanen, I.; et al. What Is the Early Adulthood Outcome of Boys Who Bully or Are Bullied in Childhood? The Finnish “From a Boy to a Man” Study. Pediatrics 2007, 120, 397–404. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Becker, S.P.; Mehari, K.R.; Langberg, J.M.; Evans, S.W. Rates of Peer Victimization in Young Adolescents with ADHD and Associations with Internalizing Symptoms and Self-Esteem. Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2017, 26, 201–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cull, S.L.; Perrin, P.B.; Benotsch, E.G.; Coston, B.E.; Dini, M.E.; Allison, K.W. Microaggressions, Internalized Oppression, Mental Health, and Suicidality in Disabled Transgender and Gender Nonbinary Individuals. Rehabil. Psychol. 2025. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Y.; Li, Z.; Tan, Y.; Zhang, X.; Zhao, Q.; Chen, X. The Influence of Personality Traits on School Bullying: A Moderated Mediation Model. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 650070. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oriol, X.; Miranda, R.; Amutio, A.; Acosta, H.C.; Mendoza, M.C.; Torres-Vallejos, J. Violent Relationships at the Social-Ecological Level: A Multi-Mediation Model to Predict Adolescent Victimization by Peers, Bullying and Depression in Early and Late Adolescence. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0174139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hong, J.S.; Espelage, D.L. A Review of Research on Bullying and Peer Victimization in School: An Ecological System Analysis. Aggress. Violent Behav. 2012, 17, 311–322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rose, C.A.; Monda-Amaya, L.E. Bullying and Victimization Among Students With Disabilities: Effective Strategies for Classroom Teachers. Interv. Sch. Clin. 2012, 48, 99–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peguero, A.; Hong, J. Bullying and Youth with Disabilities and Special Health Needs: Victimizing Students with Physical, Emotional/Behavioral, and Learning Disorders. In School Bullying; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 85–98. ISBN 978-3-030-64366-9. [Google Scholar]
- Official Site of the State of New Jersey: Department of Education. New Jersey Student Learning Standards: Legislative Mandates Frequently Asked Questions. Available online: https://www.nj.gov/education/standards/socst/ssfaq.shtml (accessed on 1 April 2025).
- Alcorn, A.M.; McGeown, S.; Mandy, W.; Aitken, D.; Fletcher-Watson, S. Learning About Neurodiversity at School: A Feasibility Study of a New Classroom Programme for Mainstream Primary Schools. Neurodiversity 2024, 2, 27546330241272186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Armstrong, T. Neurodiversity in the Classroom: Strength-Based Strategies to Help Students with Special Needs Succeed in School and Life; Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development: Arlington, VA, USA, 2012; ISBN 978-1-4166-1483-8. [Google Scholar]
- CDC Disability and Health—Disability Data|CDC. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/dhds/datasets/index.html (accessed on 9 July 2024).
Variable | Mean | SD |
Age | 39 | 12.5 |
Disability Index (out of 70) | 30.2 | 13.3 |
Academic Satisfaction Scale (out of 55) | 35.4 | 10.1 |
Bullying (out of 56) | 18.3 | 14.2 |
Depression (out of 27) | 11.3 | 6.9 |
Anxiety (out of 21) | 9.5 | 6.0 |
Frequency (n) | Percentage (%) | |
Category of Disability | ||
Deaf or Difficulty Hearing | 47 | 11.5 |
Blind or Serious Difficulty Seeing | 42 | 10.3 |
Difficulty Concentrating, Remembering, or Making Decisions | 279 | 68.2 |
Difficulty Walking or Climbing Stairs | 117 | 28.6 |
Difficulty Dressing or Bathing | 57 | 13.9 |
Difficulty Doing Errands Alone | 232 | 56.7 |
Gender | ||
Man | 153 | 37.4 |
Woman | 208 | 50.9 |
Transman | 7 | 1.7 |
Transwoman | 4 | 1.0 |
Gender non-binary/non-conforming | 34 | 8.3 |
Other | 3 | 0.7 |
Race/Ethnicity | ||
American-Indian/Native-American/Alaska-Native | 4 | 1.0 |
Asian/Asian-American/Pacific Islander | 13 | 3.2 |
Black/African-American | 44 | 10.8 |
Latina/o/x or Hispanic | 23 | 5.6 |
Multiracial/Multiethnic | 24 | 5.9 |
White/European-American | 300 | 73.3 |
Other | 1 | 0.2 |
Educational Attainment | ||
Grade school (elementary or middle) | 5 | 1.2 |
High school/GED | 49 | 12.0 |
Some college (no degree) | 111 | 27.1 |
2-year/technical degree | 54 | 13.2 |
4-year college degree | 151 | 36.9 |
Master’s degree | 35 | 8.6 |
Doctorate degree | 4 | 1.0 |
Urbanicity | ||
Urban | 131 | 32 |
Suburban | 187 | 45.7 |
Rural | 91 | 22.2 |
Variable | 1 | 2 | 3 |
---|---|---|---|
1. Depression | |||
2. Anxiety | 0.76 * | ||
3. Bullying | 0.30 * | 0.37 * | |
4. Academic Satisfaction Scale | −0.39 * | −0.35 * | −0.40 * |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Christ, B.R.; Malhotra, B.; Moustaid, G.; Chapman, O.; Perrin, P.B. Relationships Among Childhood Bullying, Academic Satisfaction, and Mental Health Outcomes in Adults with Disabilities. Diseases 2025, 13, 165. https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases13060165
Christ BR, Malhotra B, Moustaid G, Chapman O, Perrin PB. Relationships Among Childhood Bullying, Academic Satisfaction, and Mental Health Outcomes in Adults with Disabilities. Diseases. 2025; 13(6):165. https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases13060165
Chicago/Turabian StyleChrist, Bryan R., Bani Malhotra, Ghizlane Moustaid, Olivia Chapman, and Paul B. Perrin. 2025. "Relationships Among Childhood Bullying, Academic Satisfaction, and Mental Health Outcomes in Adults with Disabilities" Diseases 13, no. 6: 165. https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases13060165
APA StyleChrist, B. R., Malhotra, B., Moustaid, G., Chapman, O., & Perrin, P. B. (2025). Relationships Among Childhood Bullying, Academic Satisfaction, and Mental Health Outcomes in Adults with Disabilities. Diseases, 13(6), 165. https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases13060165