Emperor Wu of Liang’s Reinterpretation and Elevation of the Precepts as the Bodhisattva Ideal
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Bodhisattva Ideal in the Ordination of Bodhisattva Precepts for Monastics
2.1. The Bodhisattva Precepts: Equitable Guidelines for Both Monastics and Laypersons in the Mahāyāna Community
2.2. Emperor Wu’s Acceptance and Integration of Precept Traditions: Yogācāra and Brahmā’s Net Sūtra Traditions
2.3. From Śrāvaka Precepts to Bodhisattva Precepts: The Precepts of Dignified Conduct and the Precepts of the Bodhisattva Discipline
This person named so-and-so, since acquiring consciousness, has been swayed by a wandering mind and external defilements. Their ignorance is deep, and their will is weak, lacking the great vows of a bodhisattva and the intent to broadly save beings. The Śrāvaka Discipline they could uphold are limited and end with their physical lifespan. 某甲善男子, 有識神以來, 至於今生, 浪心流動, 客塵所染, 無明厚重, 志力淺弱, 無弘誓願, 無曠濟意. 所可受持聲聞律儀, 不能遠大, 止盡形壽.(P2196; Tsuchihashi 1980, pp. 865–66, 870)
The Buddhas of the ten directions, with great loving-kindness and compassion, ask you to fulfill the Bodhisattva Discipline. You should correctly contemplate that the great ground bodhisattvas of the ten directions, filling all of space, serve as your witnesses. Today, we also serve as your witnesses. Next, you should receive the Precept of Offering to the Three Jewels. Rightly mindful of all the Buddhas of the ten directions, receive them attentively with a unified mind. 十方諸佛大慈大悲, 乞汝具足菩薩律儀. 汝當正想十方大地菩薩, 遍滿虛空為汝作證. 我等今日亦為汝作證人. 汝次應受供養三寶戒. 正念十方一切諸佛, 一心諦受.(P2196; Tsuchihashi 1980, p. 874)
In a certain world, so-and-so has received the Precepts of the Bodhisattva Discipline from bodhisattvas. Therefore, the bodhisattvas regard him as a son and as a younger brother, and with compassionate hearts, they love and remember him. Because of their compassionate hearts and loving mindfulness, they cause this bodhisattva’s virtuous deeds to increase and ultimately never regress or diminish. 某世界中, 有某甲, 從菩薩, 受菩薩律儀戒. 於是菩薩, 起子想弟想, 慈心愛念. 慈心愛念故, 令是菩薩善法, 增長終不退減.(P2196; Tsuchihashi 1980, p. 880)
Thus, the Precepts of Discipline received by the bodhisattva are the most excellent and supreme among all other precepts of discipline. They embrace immeasurable and boundless merits, arise from the foremost and unsurpassed true mind, and counteract all kinds of evil actions of all sentient beings. The prātimokṣa precepts, in comparison to these precepts of discipline, do not equal even one part in a hundred; even one part in a million, or through extreme calculations and metaphors, they do not equal even one part, for they embrace all merits. 如是菩薩所受律儀戒, 於餘一切律儀戒, 最勝最上. 攝受無量無邊功德, 從第一無上真實心起, 一切眾生一切種惡行對治. 波羅提木叉戒, 於此律儀戒, 百分不及一, 百千萬分乃至極算數譬喩, 亦不及一, 攝受一切諸功德故.(P2196; Tsuchihashi 1980, p. 881)
3. The Mahāyāna Ideals in the “Abstinence from Alcohol and Meat”
3.1. Meat-Eating Equivalent to Killing
Emperor Wu asked: Does buying fish and meat with money correspond to “doubtful meat” or not? 問: 以錢買魚肉, 是疑非疑?
Sengbian responded: In terms of principle, it is naturally doubtful. 答: 若理中理自是疑.
Emperor Wu asked: Can’t we understand it from the perspective of principle? 問: 不得以理中見?
Sengbian responded: If we discuss it from principle, monks should not purchase fish and meat. 答: 若理中為論, 眾僧不應市魚肉.
Emperor Wu asked: Right now, I’m asking whether, in phenomenon, it corresponds to “doubtful” or not. 今所問事中是疑不?
Sengbian responded: According to the teachings, it is not doubtful. 答: 若約教非疑.
Emperor Wu asked: For whom does the butcher in the market kill? 問: 市中人為誰殺?
Sengbian responded: They kill for the buyer; however, the buyer does not have this thought. 答: 乃為買者殺. 但買者不作此想.
Emperor Wu asked: If someone buys meat, and this person is not mentally confused, how can they not know that it was killed for them and fail to have such thoughts? 問: 買肉者, 此人既不惛亂, 豈得不知是為買者殺, 而不作此想?
Sengbian responded: At that time, they thought of it as already dead meat. 答: 于時作現死肉心 (Guang hongming ji T52, p. 299c2–10).
3.2. From the Bodhisattva Precepts to Mahāyāna Sūtras
If one eats the father of a sentient being, that being will repay by eating one’s father. If one eats a mother, the being will repay by eating one’s mother; if one eats a child, the being will repay by eating one’s child. Thus, enemies eat each other in retribution, enduring through countless eons of long, endless nights. 若使噉食眾生父, 眾生亦報噉食其父. 若噉食眾生母, 眾生亦報噉食其母. 若噉食眾生子, 眾生亦報噉食其子. 如是怨對報相噉食, 歷劫長夜無有窮已.(Guang hongming ji T52, p. 297a14–17)
3.3. Unifying the Vinaya Under the Universality of Mahāyāna Sūtras
Emperor Wu asked: When did the teachings of the vinaya begin? 制又問: 律教起何時?
Sengbian responded: They began eight years after the Buddha’s enlightenment and continued until his parinirvāṇa. 僧辯奉答: 起八年已後至涅槃.
Emperor Wu asked: If the Nirvāṇa sūtra includes teachings on abstaining from meat—just as the Laṅkāvatāra sūtra, the Aṅgulimāla sūtra, the Mahāmegha sūtra 大雲經 (Dayun jing), and the sutra of the Bound Elephant 縛象經 (Fuxaing jing) all contain precepts against meat consumption—how can it be said that no teachings on abstaining from meat existed until his parinirvāṇa? 問: 若如此涅槃經有斷肉, 楞伽經有斷肉, 央掘摩羅經亦斷肉, 大雲經縛象經並斷肉律, 若至涅槃, 云何無斷肉事?
Sengbian responded: The vinaya follows the initial teachings, and thus it is this way. 答: 律接續初教, 所以如此.
Emperor Wu asked: You said that the vinaya follows the initial teachings until the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. If it continued until his parinirvāṇa, shouldn’t it also include teachings on abstaining from meat? 問: 律既云接續初教, 至於涅槃. 既至涅槃, 則應言斷肉.
Sengbian responded: From the perspective of establishing the precepts, these teachings build on the initial teachings and relate to the Five Periods Teachings. However, it does not mean that all teachings are identical. This is Sengbian’s understanding. 答: 若制教邊, 此是接續初教, 通於五時, 不言一切皆同. 僧辯解正齊此.(Guang hongming ji T52, p. 300a6–14)
Emperor Wu asked: Did Upāli compile all the teachings spoken by the Buddha? 問: 優波離悉集佛所說不?
Dao’en responded: He compiled the teachings from the first four periods but none from the nirvāṇa period. 答: 集前四時, 不集涅槃時.
Emperor Wu asked: If that’s the case, how did Mahākāśyapa ask Ānanda, “Where did the Buddha speak?” and compile the sūtra piṭaka up until the nirvāṇa period? And similarly, how did he ask Upāli, “Where did the Buddha speak?” and compile the vinaya piṭaka up until the nirvāṇa period? How can it be said that they only collected teachings from the first four periods without including any from the nirvāṇa period? 問: 若爾, 迦葉那得語阿難道, “佛從何處說法”, 至涅槃時, 集修多羅藏;語優波離道, “佛從何處說法”, 至涅槃時, 集毘尼藏? 云何得言唯取前四時, 不取涅槃?
Dao’en responded: No new precepts were established during the nirvāṇa period. 答: 涅槃時, 不復制戒.
Emperor Wu asked: The Nirvāṇa sūtra states, “Eating meat cuts off the seeds of great loving-kindness. From today onward, I decree that all disciples should no longer eat any meat, including that of naturally dead animals.” Is this not a precept? 問: 涅槃云, “夫食肉者, 斷大慈種. 我從今日, 制諸弟子不得復食一切肉, 一切悉斷及自死者”. 如此制斷, 是戒非戒?
Dao’en was unable to respond further. 道恩不復奉答.(Guang hongming ji T52, p. 300b20–28)
4. Conclusions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
T | Taishō shinshū daizōkyō 大正新脩大藏經 [Revised Version of the Canon Compiled During the Taisho Era]. Edited by Takakusu Junjirō 高楠順次郎 and Watanabe Kaigyoku 渡辺海旭 et al. 100 vols. Tokyo: Taishō issaikyō kankōkai 大正一切經刊行會, 1924–35 |
P | Pelliot Chinese Dunhuang manuscript |
1 | While the ideal of the wheel-turning sage-king (cakravartin) had been present since the early Southern and Northern Dynasties, Emperor Wu developed a unique interpretation of this concept based on the historical Aśoka, who was revered as a cakravartin in Indian history. This interpretation differs from the more conventional concept of the cakravartin found in the Mahāprajñāpāramitā śāstra 大智度論 (Dazhi du lun), which was widely spread in the Northern Dynasties (Joo 2012, pp. 9–12). In the 10th year of the Tianjian era (511), the Aśokarājāvadāna sūtra 阿育王經 (Ayuwang jing) was translated. By the 15th year of the same era (516), the publication of the Jinglü Yixiang 經律異相 under imperial edict referenced the Aśokarājāvadāna sūtra on multiple occasions (So 2009, p. 135). The frequent citation and imperial attention underscore Emperor Wu’s high regard for the text and the influence of Aśoka, as a model of the wheel-turning sage-king, on his own reign. |
2 | Notably, before Emperor Wen of the Song dynasty 宋文帝 (r. 424–453) received the Bodhisattva precepts, the sūtra on the Good Precepts of the Bodhisattvas 菩薩善戒經 (Pusa shan jie jing), which belongs to the Yogācāra tradition, was similarly translated and introduced into China (Xia 2016, p. 42). |
3 | The sūtras cited include the Treatise on the Sūtra of Generating Bodhicitta 發菩提心經論 (Fa puti xin jing lun), Flower Hand sūtra 華手經 (Hua shou jing), Mahāprajñāpāramitā Śāstra, Prajñāpāramitā sūtra 般若波羅蜜經 (Bore boluomi jing), Mātṛkā sūtra 摩得勒伽經 (Modelejia jing), Sūtra on the Good Precepts of the Bodhisattvas, Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda sūtra, Samantabhadra Contemplation Practice Methods sūtra 觀普賢行經 (Guan Puxian xing jing), Commentary on the Sudassana Vinaya 善見律毘婆沙 (Shan jian lü piposha), Upāsaka Precepts sūtra, Mahāparinirvāṇa sūtra, and Mahāsaṃnipāta sūtra, among others (Yan 1999, pp. 148–49). |
4 | Tsuchihashi (1980, p. 837) suggests that the Offering to the Three Jewels Precept should actually be performed as the first in the sequence. He argues that its placement later in the text implies that the Ordination of the Bodhisattva Precepts for Monastics does not follow the actual ordination ceremony sequence. According to Tsuchihashi, Chapter 5, titled “Receiving the Precepts of Dignified Conduct”, addresses the critical issues of reordination 重受 and transfer of the precepts 轉戒 for monastics who receive the Bodhisattva precepts, which explains its description preceding the Offering to the Three Jewels Precept. |
5 | The seven groups 七衆 (qizhong) of the monastic community consist of bhikṣu 比丘 (fully ordained monks), bhikṣuṇī 比丘尼 (fully ordained nuns), śikṣamāṇā 式叉摩那 (probationary nuns undergoing a two-year training before full ordination as bhikṣuṇīs), śrāmaṇera 沙彌 (novice monks), śrāmaṇerikā 沙彌尼 (novice nuns), upāsaka 優婆塞 (male lay devotees), and upāsikā 優婆夷 (female lay devotees). |
6 | This general use can also be observed in the “Requesting to Receive the Precepts” section of the Ordination of the Bodhisattva Precepts for Monastics (P2196; Tsuchihashi 1980, p. 850). |
7 | Vinaya-masters Sengbian, Fachao 法超 of Zhuangyan Temple 莊嚴寺, and Baodu 寶度 of Guangzhai Temple 光宅寺 ascended the high seat at the Huaguang hall in Hualin Garden on the 29th May. While they showed a willingness to engage with Emperor Wu’s arguments and demonstrated some acceptance, their discussions remained parallel to, rather than converging with his views. It is also likely that other vinaya-masters at the time were more critical of Emperor Wu’s policies than these three. |
8 | Emperor Wu also stated, “Owls, crows, wild pigeons, and domestic pigeons do not die wherever they go; we have not seen a single one that died naturally. Even though roe deer, deer, pheasants, and rabbits fill the fields and marshes, we have never seen a single one that died naturally. Therefore, to find dead meat, one must go to the slaughterhouse; to find dead fish, one must go to the places where nets are cast. Without killing, how could there be dead meat?” 鴟鴉鳩鴿觸處不死. 那不見有一自死者. 麞鹿雉兔充滿野澤, 亦不甞見有一自死者. 而覓死肉其就屠殺家, 覓死魚必就罾網處. 若非殺生豈有死肉? (Guang hongming ji T52, p. 303a20–24). |
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Cho, Y.K. Emperor Wu of Liang’s Reinterpretation and Elevation of the Precepts as the Bodhisattva Ideal. Religions 2025, 16, 164. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16020164
Cho YK. Emperor Wu of Liang’s Reinterpretation and Elevation of the Precepts as the Bodhisattva Ideal. Religions. 2025; 16(2):164. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16020164
Chicago/Turabian StyleCho, Yoon Kyung. 2025. "Emperor Wu of Liang’s Reinterpretation and Elevation of the Precepts as the Bodhisattva Ideal" Religions 16, no. 2: 164. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16020164
APA StyleCho, Y. K. (2025). Emperor Wu of Liang’s Reinterpretation and Elevation of the Precepts as the Bodhisattva Ideal. Religions, 16(2), 164. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16020164