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Article

Effect of the Sterilization Process on the Properties of Adhesive Foils Dedicated to Criminal Trace Evidence

by
Magdalena Olejnik
,
Magdalena Cichecka
,
Edyta Chmal-Fudali
,
Marcin H. Struszczyk
,
Paweł Kubiak
* and
Agnieszka Gutowska
Institute of Security Technologies “MORATEX”, 3 M. Sklodowskiej-Curie Str., 90-505 Lodz, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(2), 1118; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16021118
Submission received: 11 December 2025 / Revised: 13 January 2026 / Accepted: 19 January 2026 / Published: 22 January 2026
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Polymer Composite Materials)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

This study aimed to evaluate the impact of sterilization of low-adhesive films with ethylene oxide (EO) or accelerated electrons (radiation sterilization) on their performance in the context of their use to protect forensic traces. It was hypothesized that the implementation of the sterilization process made it possible to obtain functional tools for securing traces. The analysis showed that changes in surface density, density, tensile strength, and adhesion strength do not significantly affect the functional performance of the tapes. Additionally, no alterations in chemical resistance were observed following either sterilization method. The results confirm that both sterilization techniques are suitable for obtaining sterile tapes for forensic applications.

1. Introduction

The collection of trace evidence using dedicated traces is an integral component of forensic science [1,2].
Adhesive tape evidence collection is a non-destructive technique widely used at crime scenes and in forensic laboratories to collect trace amounts of biological material for DNA analysis. Studies have shown the effectiveness of adhesive tape sampling as the preferred method for collecting DNA from various crime-related objects [3,4,5].
Trace examinations involve detailed microscopic and instrumental analyses to identify features of trace materials and assess their significance, as described in [6,7,8]. The above-mentioned analyses fall into two categories: physical comparisons for fracture matches, and evaluation of color, construction, and composition to rule out sources [9,10]. Adhesive tapes used for collecting evidence must be sterilized to maintain chemical and biological integrity. This paper examines how radiation and ethylene oxide sterilization affect the properties of trace evidence foils [11].
In the trace evidence recovery process, analysis to facilitate trace evidence, their validation, and optimization is crucial to obtain valid and legally accepted forms of evidence [12]. The tapes used to collect the evidence from crime scenes under operating conditions are subjected to different factors that might lead to the material and evidence degradation. This process of structural change may be the result of physical or chemical transformations in polymer materials caused by long-term exposure to abiotic factors. Such factors include temperature; light; atomic, molecular, and singlet oxygen; radiation by X-ray or UV; ultrasounds; and chemical substances, including water and steam. Mechanical stresses, especially cyclically changing dynamic stresses, may also be a contributing factor. Finally, the process may be influenced by biological agents involving the activity of microorganisms. This process is called a biodegradation [13,14,15,16,17]. To avoid biological activity, a sterilization process is applied to adhesive foils. It is used to destroy and remove all forms of contaminating microorganisms from a material or product [18,19,20]. This can extend the lifetime of the foils and the collected traces’ usability for further examination.
A complex study of the degradation processes of the same four commercially available foils studied in this work (POLI TACK® 850 and 854 and ORAGUARD® 210 and 215) was performed in a previous article [21], resulting in a comprehensive analysis of their physical and chemical properties. The four types of film examined in this article are characterized by different types of carriers (clear matte polyester film or PVC foil) with different adhesive layers: clear acrylic lacquer or solvent-based polyacrylate. In general, polymer adhesives are commonly used to collect and secure trace evidence such as fingerprints. These adhesives can be formulated in various forms to ensure effective adhesion to surfaces where evidence is found [21]. In this paper, the sterilization process’s impact on their physico-mechanical and chemical properties was studied. The selection of an effective sterilization method is extremely important in order to avoid contamination of the samples or undesirable changes in physical and chemical properties of the sterilized material [22,23].
The most common sterilization methods include chemical treatment (ethanol, ethylene oxide), irradiation (ultraviolet irradiation, gamma and electron beam irradiation), and heat treatment. Each of the sterilization methods has its advantages and limitations [20,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34]. Ethylene oxide is a standard method of sterilization for a variety of materials, but it is not suitable for the sterilization of liquids. Furthermore, it has been observed that the process can result in the cracking of certain materials, which can lead to the formation of toxic residues and by-products. However, it is a cheap and easily accessible method. However, residues of ethylene oxides can cause changes in surface morphology and can be toxic to cells after implantation. Therefore, long aeration of sterilized materials after the sterilization process is necessary to minimize all harmful factors [20,35,36,37,38]. Ethylene oxide sterilization is successfully used as one of the most popular methods of sterilizing medical devices and equipment. Medical devices and equipment often contain components made of polymers (including PET and PVC). The literature on the subject indicates that ethylene oxide sterilization does not affect the properties of these materials, provided that the correct parameters are maintained at each stage of sterilization [39,40].
Over the years, sterilization by radiation (such as accelerated electrons, etc.) has been proven to be an effective, simple, highly penetrating sterilization method for a wide range of materials [41,42,43,44].
It has been proven that the dose of 25 kGy does not increase the process temperature. This enables the radiation sterilization of heat-sensitive drugs and articles composed of low-melt transition plastics. Radiation sterilization is frequently the most effective method for the sterilization of biological tissues and preparations of biological origin. Sterilization via radiation of the trace evidence foils should preserve their functionality and usage time [45]. In the case of many polymers, radiation leads to alterations in their physicochemical properties. These include increased mechanical strength, increased glass transition and softening temperatures, reduced crystalline areas, and, from an application perspective, increased resistance to high temperatures. The cross-linking of polyethylene has been shown to enhance the performance properties of the product in the majority of cases. Nonetheless, in the instance of the irradiation of products with self-adhesive glue, for instance, the resultant cross-links have been observed to reduce the adhesion of the glue while concomitantly increasing its internal cohesion [46].
The aim of the study was to verify the properties of low-adhesion films subjected to the sterilization process with ethylene oxide (EO) or accelerated electrons (radiation sterilization—RS) treatments, which are important from the point of view of the assumed application. The paper raises the scientific thesis that the introduction, as the final stage, of the sterilization process allows for obtaining functional tools for securing forensic traces.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

The following article will discuss the properties of selected low-adhesive films (positives, PVC-based films, and gelatine-based films) used for the collection of criminal trace evidence. Forensic criminal films typically comprise the following components:
-
The substrate,
-
A gelatine receiving layer, and
-
The covering film.
The foils subjected to sterilization are commercially available products used to trace evidence, as listed below. Their main properties are described in Table 1:
  • POLI TACK 850 (described as sample A);
  • POLI TACK 854 (described as sample B);
  • ORAGUARD 210 (described as sample C);
  • ORAGUARD 215 (described as sample D).
The foils chosen for investigation are based on different carriers (PET or PVC foil), with two different adhesive layers: clear acrylic lacquer or a solvent-based polyacrylate layer. Typically, PET-based films have relatively higher mechanical properties compared to PVC-based films, but adhesive properties are directly related to the types of adhesive layers.

2.2. Methods

2.2.1. Sterilization Process

The sterilization process was conducted in industrial environments using one of two sterilization agents:
(1)
Accelerated electrons with a dose of 25 kGy (Institute of Nuclear Chemistry and Technology/Poland) according to ISO 11137-1:2025—Sterilization of health care products—Radiation—Part 1: Requirements for development [46], ISO 11137-2:2013—Sterilization of health care products—Radiation—Part 2: Establishing the sterilization dose [47], ISO 11137-3:2017—Sterilization of health care products—Radiation—Part 3: Guidance on dosimetric aspects [48], and ISO/TS 11137-4:2020—Sterilization of health care products—Radiation—Part 4: Guidance on process control [49] standards;
(2)
Ethylene oxide (Steriservice/Poland) according to ISO 11135:2014 Sterilization of health care products—Ethylene oxide—Requirements for the development, validation, and routine control of a sterilization process for medical devices standard [50].

2.2.2. Determination of the Physico-Mechanical Properties of the Tested Tapes

The physico-mechanical behaviors of the tested tapes, including areal density, thickness, density, peal adhesions, tensile strength, and chemical resistance before and after the EO and RS processes, were determined according to the methodology described in [21].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Physico-Mechanical Properties

Changes in the physico-mechanical properties of the tested adhesive tapes designed to protect forensic traces after radiation or ethylene oxide sterilization were evaluated in terms of areal density, density, thickness, peel adhesion, and tensile strength in two directions: longitudinal (direction 1) and transverse (direction 2). The results of the experiments are presented in Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5 and Figure 6.
Both the EO and RS processes had a significant impact on the increase in surface area for sample B: an increase of 3.2% was observed. For the other adhesive films, no change in this parameter was observed regardless of the type of sterilization process (Figure 1).
No influence on the thickness for all adhesive tapes was observed, with the only exception being sample B after the RS process seeing a 5.2% increase (Figure 2). A decrease in the density of samples A, B, and C after the RS process was also observed, with the largest decrease (3.4%) observed for sample B (Figure 3).
The adhesive tape samples were tested for peel adhesion after EO and RS. The EO process increased this parameter by 20% only in sample A. The other samples showed a decrease in this parameter, with the largest decrease (55%) observed in sample B (Figure 4). The effect of the RS process on the peel adhesion value of all samples was also studied. Samples A and B showed a decrease in this parameter, with sample B showing a decrease of 59% (Figure 4), which is consistent with the results obtained after the EO process. This means that both types of sterilization reduce the peel adhesion value for samples A and B. For the other two samples, C and D, peel adhesion increased by 1.9% and 13%, respectively (Figure 4).
Verification of the properties of adhesive films after EO and RS also included tensile strength tests with and without a protective layer. In general, it should be noted that the tensile strength of samples A, B, and D, subjected to both EO and RS, increased (Figure 5 and Figure 6). A significant increase in this parameter was observed for sample A tested without a protective layer, reaching up to 71% when the sample was subjected to RS. When sample A was subjected to EO, the tensile strength increased by as much as 73% (Figure 5 and Figure 6). In the case of sample C, the tendency of tensile strength fluctuations was not clear. However, it can be assumed that both the EO and RS processes have a slight effect on the increase in this parameter (Figure 5 and Figure 6).
The sterilization of EO and RS resulted in a 3.2% increase in the surface area of sample B. The other tapes showed no changes, whereas the thickness of the strips remained stable, except for sample B after RS (an increase of 5.2%). After RS, a decrease in the density of samples A, B, and C was recorded, the largest being for B (3.4%).
Tensile strength (with and without a protective layer) after both types of sterilization increased for A, B, and D. The largest increase was seen in sample A without a protective layer: 71% after RS and 73% after EO. In the case of sample C, the changes were insignificant. To sum up, it should be noted that the main material composition of the tapes (PET or PVC) shapes the direct mechanical parameters of the tested tapes, and the sterilization factor does not significantly affect the changes in their properties.
Peel adhesion after EO increased by 20% for sample A only; in the other cases, decreases were recorded, the largest (55%) being for sample B. After RS, adhesion decreased for samples A and B (B: 59%), while for C and D it increased by 1.9% and 13%, respectively. The above phenomenon is mainly due to the adhesive layer applied to the tested polymer tape.

3.2. Chemical Resistance Properties

Chemical resistance tests were conducted for all selected films for exposure to five chemical substances, before and after the EO and RS processes, and the test results are presented in Table 2. No impact on the chemical resistance of the tested films for both EO and RS processes within the tested tapes was observed.
As shown above, the chemical resistance of all tapes was evaluated before and after sterilization via EO and RS, using five reactants: 40% NaOH, 32% HCl, 65% HNO3, naphtha, or acetone.
The sterilization processes (EO or RS) did not affect the chemical resistance—the properties of the tapes remained unchanged, despite the different material composition; their usefulness and resistance to chemical agents were confirmed in the conducted studies.

4. Conclusions

In this paper, the influence of two types of sterilization, by radiation dose and ethylene oxide, on the chemical and physico-mechanical properties of adhesive tapes used to collect trace evidence was evaluated. The research analyzes changes in the physico-mechanical properties and susceptibility of the chemical substance of adhesive tapes designed to protect forensic traces after sterilization with ethylene oxide (EO) and radiation (accelerated electrons). A number of properties selected for the assumed functionalities of the tapes used to protect forensic traces were evaluated, including surface density, thickness, density, adhesion strength, and tensile strength in two directions. The changes found, in particular in surface density, density and, most noticeably, tensile strength and adhesion, are not critical for maintaining the integral performance of the adhesive tapes. Significantly, no changes were found in the susceptibility of the tapes to chemical agents after treating the samples with two sterilizing agents. Taking into account the results of the research, the two investigated sterilization factors can be recommended as useful for obtaining sterility for tapes used in forensics.

Author Contributions

M.O.: writing—original draft, supervision, investigation, conceptualization, formal analysis; M.C.: methodology, investigation; E.C.-F.: methodology, investigation; M.H.S.: conceptualization, methodology, supervision; P.K.: writing—review and editing, resources; A.G.: supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The research was funded by the National Center for Research and Development through the research grant Specialist set of low-adhesive films for the protection of biological traces, No. DOB-BIO 9/05/01/2018, implemented as part of the program in the field of scientific research and development works for defense and security.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request due to privacy/ethics.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study, in the collection, analyses, interpretation of data, in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

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Applsci 16 01118 g001
Figure 1. Change in areal density of adhesion tapes before and after ethylene oxide sterilization (EO) or radiation sterilization (RS).
Figure 1. Change in areal density of adhesion tapes before and after ethylene oxide sterilization (EO) or radiation sterilization (RS).
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Figure 2. Change in thickness of adhesion tapes before and after ethylene oxide sterilization (EO) or radiation sterilization (RS).
Figure 2. Change in thickness of adhesion tapes before and after ethylene oxide sterilization (EO) or radiation sterilization (RS).
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Figure 3. Change in density of adhesion tapes before and after ethylene oxide sterilization (EO) or radiation sterilization (RS).
Figure 3. Change in density of adhesion tapes before and after ethylene oxide sterilization (EO) or radiation sterilization (RS).
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Figure 4. Change in peel adhesion of adhesion tapes before and after ethylene oxide sterilization (EO) or radiation sterilization (RS).
Figure 4. Change in peel adhesion of adhesion tapes before and after ethylene oxide sterilization (EO) or radiation sterilization (RS).
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Figure 5. Change in tensile strength of adhesion tapes (without protective layer) before and after ethylene oxide sterilization (EO) or radiation sterilization (RS).
Figure 5. Change in tensile strength of adhesion tapes (without protective layer) before and after ethylene oxide sterilization (EO) or radiation sterilization (RS).
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Figure 6. Change in tensile strength of adhesion tapes (with protective layer) before and after ethylene oxide sterilization (EO) or radiation sterilization (RS).
Figure 6. Change in tensile strength of adhesion tapes (with protective layer) before and after ethylene oxide sterilization (EO) or radiation sterilization (RS).
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Table 1. Characteristics of studied adhesion tapes used for the design of the tape for protection of the forensic traces [21].
Table 1. Characteristics of studied adhesion tapes used for the design of the tape for protection of the forensic traces [21].
Product detailsPOLI TACK 850,
(Sample A)		POLI TACK 854,
(Sample B)		ORAGUARD 210,
(Sample C)		ORAGUARD 215,
(Sample D)
Polyacrylate-coated PET film, with siliconized PP filmPolyacrylate-coated PET Film, with siliconized PP filmPVC Foil, protected by UV, coated on one side with polyacrylate solvent, protected with silicone paper PVC Foil, protected by UV, coated on one side with polyacrylate solvent, protected with silicone paper
[Supplier: POLI-TAPE Klebefolien GmbH, Remagen, Germany][Supplier: POLI-TAPE Klebefolien GmbH, Remagen, Germany][Supplier: ORAFOL, Oranienburg, Germany][Supplier: ORAFOL, Oranienburg, Germany]
CarrierClear matte polyester filmClear matte polyester filmPVC foilPVC foil
Adhesive layerClear acrylic
lacquer		Clear acrylic
lacquer		Solvent-based polyacrylate, permanent, transparentSolvent-based polyacrylate, permanent, transparent
Table 2. Chemical resistance of the designed adhesive tapes before and after ethylene oxide sterilization (EO) or radiation sterilization (RS).
Table 2. Chemical resistance of the designed adhesive tapes before and after ethylene oxide sterilization (EO) or radiation sterilization (RS).
SampleFoil TypeTesting
Methodology		Reagent
40% Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)32% Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)65% Nitric Acid (HNO3)NafthaAcetone
1.POLI TACK 850before sterilizationPBCH 07/2016 +++++
after sterilization+++++
2.POLI TACK 854before sterilization+++++
after sterilization+++++
3.ORAGUARD 210before sterilization+--+-
after sterilization+--+-
4.ORAGUARD 215before sterilization+--+-
after sterilization+--+-
where “+” means tape is chemical-resistant; “-” means tape is not chemical-resistant.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Olejnik, M.; Cichecka, M.; Chmal-Fudali, E.; Struszczyk, M.H.; Kubiak, P.; Gutowska, A. Effect of the Sterilization Process on the Properties of Adhesive Foils Dedicated to Criminal Trace Evidence. Appl. Sci. 2026, 16, 1118. https://doi.org/10.3390/app16021118

AMA Style

Olejnik M, Cichecka M, Chmal-Fudali E, Struszczyk MH, Kubiak P, Gutowska A. Effect of the Sterilization Process on the Properties of Adhesive Foils Dedicated to Criminal Trace Evidence. Applied Sciences. 2026; 16(2):1118. https://doi.org/10.3390/app16021118

Chicago/Turabian Style

Olejnik, Magdalena, Magdalena Cichecka, Edyta Chmal-Fudali, Marcin H. Struszczyk, Paweł Kubiak, and Agnieszka Gutowska. 2026. "Effect of the Sterilization Process on the Properties of Adhesive Foils Dedicated to Criminal Trace Evidence" Applied Sciences 16, no. 2: 1118. https://doi.org/10.3390/app16021118

APA Style

Olejnik, M., Cichecka, M., Chmal-Fudali, E., Struszczyk, M. H., Kubiak, P., & Gutowska, A. (2026). Effect of the Sterilization Process on the Properties of Adhesive Foils Dedicated to Criminal Trace Evidence. Applied Sciences, 16(2), 1118. https://doi.org/10.3390/app16021118

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