The Impact of Virtual Reality on Employee Training and Learning in Organisations: A Systematic Literature Review

Abstract

This study analyses the literature on virtual reality and employee training and development in organisations, contributing to the advancement of knowledge in this area, as well as proposing a conceptual model of analysis and an agenda for future research. This is a systematic review, based on the PRISMA checklist, stratifying the different thematic groups, using the VOSviewer software, version 1.6.19, and content analysis to establish a systematised and integrated structure, registered on the INPLASY platform and based on a sample of 201 studies published and indexed in the Web of Science and SCOPUS databases between 1998 and 2025. The results show four main groups: (1) Opportunities and sectoral applications in the use of virtual reality; (2) challenges in the use of virtual reality; (3) skills developed with virtual reality; (4) integration of virtual reality into organisational strategies. A conceptual model of analysis is presented to better integrate the themes. The study provides a new and solid systematization of the literature and supports the argument that virtual reality enables the acquisition of new technical and behavioural skills and offers personalised and safe training, contributing to the achievement of organisational strategy.

1. Introduction

The development of information and communication technologies (ICT) in the mid-1990s drove the transition to a society that recognises knowledge as the most important asset for organisations. As a result, there has been a growing search for new approaches that aim to develop human capital as a necessary condition for the competitiveness of organisations and for the sustainable economic growth of society [1].

Corporate training was mainly carried out using traditional methods, under the guidance of a trainer, and was complemented only using various technologies, such as CDs, video cassettes and television. At the beginning of the 21st century, the possibilities for using technology were significantly expanded, and the concept of e-learning reflects a new model of learning in organisations and marks the beginning of changes in training. Currently, organisations offer online training to their employees, providing uniform standards for training programmes, regardless of where they operate [1]. Furthermore, the COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated digitalisation and revealed the fragility of numerous traditional practices, such as knowledge management in organisations [1,2,3]. As a result, the potential of virtual reality technologies has been explored as a valuable addition to training methods [4].

Virtual reality (VR) technology emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s but only began to gain popularity and commercial success in the mid-2010s [5]. Video games are the best-known and most widely adopted application of VR, using immersive 3D environments to create interactive and collaborative entertainment products. Currently, VR is used for a variety of applications, including entertainment [5], education [6], sports [7], training [8] and health [9].

Commercial providers apply VR technology to training through a gamification process, which includes the use of game elements such as digital badges, points, leader boards, levels, score percentages, and rewards to engage and motivate trainees in the learning process [5]. In addition, VR involves an artificial environment that simulates the physical world or an imaginary space, allowing trainees to interact with virtual objects and entities in real time.

Through the use of head-mounted displays (HMDs), motion-tracking and eye-tracking sensors, as well as additional input devices, users are afforded a heightened sense of presence and agency within the virtual environment [10]. This form of use emerged in aviation training, evolving to the point where pilots initially devote hours of training to flawless take-offs and landings within a simulator before entering a real aircraft [11]. Later, VR was applied to surgical training, which enables surgical clinic interns to acquire new practices and procedures until they accurately achieve technical mastery of the profession [12].

The ability to simulate real-world scenarios and provide practical experiences in a controlled and safe environment makes the tool valuable for skills acquisition, learning, and development. It should be noted that these training programmes can be carried out through fully immersive virtual reality (360 VR) or non-immersive virtual reality (Desktop VR) [13]. As a result of the above, VR has attracted significant attention and has become a subject of relevant interest for research [10].

Immersive VR technologies are promising as learning tools, but the maturity of their use is still questionable. Most studies remain in the experimental phase, focusing on performance and usability, and there is a lack of integration with specific learning theories [14]. In this sense, VR has the potential to improve learning, with evidence suggesting that VR can enhance numerous skills, as well as provide immediate and detailed feedback [15].

However, it should be noted that other scientific research shows that classroom training will not be replaced anytime soon, but that it should be complemented by real-world simulations [10], for example through VR, which provides a safer and more economical environment [16,17]. VR training should be preceded by classroom instruction and followed by debriefings and additional learning through reflection and discussion. In this way, human interaction is still fundamental, and virtual reality should be used as an additional tool [10]. Further scientific studies are needed to explore the long-term impact of VR-based training on individual performance, team dynamics and organisational outcomes [10,18].

In view of the above, there is a need to investigate how virtual reality (VR) technologies are being effectively integrated into corporate training, and what their real impacts are on learning, individual performance, and organisational results. In this context, the present study aims to (i) verify recent transformations in the area of human resource training and development and identify opportunities and sectoral applications in the use of virtual reality; (ii) identify the challenges of using virtual reality for professional training and skills development; (iii) verify which skills can be developed based on training programmes involving virtual reality; and (iv) investigate the role of virtual reality in organisational strategy and its integration into human development processes.

This study seeks to rigorously examine the phenomenon of VR in organisational training programmes, providing a detailed understanding of the opportunities and challenges of VR, the skills acquired, and the role of organisational strategy. We have therefore developed and proposed a conceptual analysis model with these components, thereby ensuring that other researchers can benefit from the results of this current SLR in terms of systematically identifying gaps in the literature that require exploration and further study, as well as providing guidance for future research. In addition, the conceptual model broadens the boundaries of the literature and provides insights for organisations to view VR as a strategic tool that enables agile learning practices in the acquisition of technical and behavioural skills and in the achievement of organisational and individual goals.

2. Materials and Methods

This systematic literature review aims to provide an analysis of scientific and thematic production on virtual reality in training and skills acquisition within organisations. This SLR was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) recommendations to ensure transparency, scientific rigour, and reproducibility. The review protocol was previously registered on the INPLASY (International Platform of Registered Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols) (Milwaukee, WI, USA) platform under DOI number 10.37766/inplasy2025.8.0085 and is available as supplementary material. Registering the protocol on international platforms such as INPLASY offers several advantages, namely: transparency by ensuring that the objectives, inclusion/exclusion criteria and analysis methods are defined in advance, avoiding bias during the process; traceability as it allows all stages of the review to be documented, making it auditable and reproducible; scientific visibility by increasing the credibility of the review, as it is validated on an internationally recognised basis; reduction of duplication of effort, as researchers can check similar protocols and align investigations; greater acceptance in scientific journals, as it reinforces methodological robustness and reviewer confidence [19].

The SLR follows the PRISMA Flow steps described below by Phoobane et al. [20] (

Table 1. Steps of PRISMA Flow.

Step	Step Description
Identification	This step involves identifying and retrieving relevant studies from various sources, such as databases, journals, and conferences. In bibliometric studies, it often involves keyword searches, citation tracking, and specific database filters to gather studies that fall within the scope of the review.
Screening	During screening, duplicate records are removed and a preliminary assessment of each study is made based on the title and abstract to filter out those that do not meet the inclusion criteria. This step refines the data set by discarding studies outside the scope of the research question.
Eligibility	This step requires a more in-depth assessment of the remaining studies, through full reading, to confirm that they meet all the criteria defined in the review protocol. Studies are assessed for relevance, quality, and alignment with bibliometric objectives.
Inclusion	In the final stage, eligible studies are included in the systematic review. Data are extracted and analysed using tools such as VOSviewer to analyse trends, co-authorship networks, citation analysis, and other relevant indicators.

). Thus, we began by identifying the need to conduct a systematic review, as there was a gap in the literature due to this being a recent and little-explored topic in the organisational environment, requiring a more detailed understanding. Observing the methodological criteria of step 1, two databases were defined, Scopus and Web of Science, as they are two internationally collected and multidisciplinary databases. The decision to use exclusively Web of Science and Scopus is based on the recognition that these two databases represent the most comprehensive and consolidated multidisciplinary repositories for scientific research, covering a wide range of journals with high impact factors and editorial rigor. Complementing the review protocol, keywords were defined and used in English as it is the universal language of the academic and scientific community. The search used the following keywords: “Virtual Reality” AND “Learning” AND “Training” AND “organizations”.

The systematic search of the databases was conducted on 6 February 2025, which is the deadline for inclusion of the analysed studies. The mention of 2025 in the text therefore refers to the actual date of collection, not to a projection of future publications (51 results were identified in the Web of Science database and 369 in Scopus).

The inclusion criteria are (1) peer-reviewed scientific articles; (2) conference articles; (3) original studies (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods); (4) reviews such as systematic reviews and meta-analyses; (5) research on training, learning, and virtual reality; (6) studies published in English, with no time restrictions. As inclusion criteria, we opted for full articles with available text and peer-reviewed articles and conference articles because this is the technology sector and VR is a dynamic technological field, constantly being updated, so many innovations and prototypes appear first at conferences before being expanded into scientific journal articles.

The following were excluded: (1) letters, meeting summaries, theses, media reports, content feeds; (2) articles that do not focus on virtual reality, training and learning; (3) essays or opinions; (4) books. Duplicate articles and those not related to the research area were also excluded, leaving 385 studies.

Next, the 385 abstracts were read, and 168 articles were excluded because they were not directly relevant to the objectives of the review and the inclusion criteria. Subsequently, the articles were read in full, and of the remaining 217 articles, 16 were excluded (five studies were not in English; 11 studies did not refer to virtual reality). In the end, 201 studies were included (Figure 1), read in full and classified according to keyword analysis using VOSviewer software. In the bibliometric analysis stage, specific clustering criteria and a minimum threshold for keyword co-occurrence were adopted, based on methodological recommendations previously used in similar studies. To ensure the reproducibility of the process, we established (i) a minimum of five keyword occurrences for inclusion in the network, (ii) the choice of the normalization method (association strength), and (iii) the use of the Louvain clustering algorithm as the clustering criterion.

3. Results

3.1. General Results

Annual scientific output began modestly and was limited, accounting for 32.47% of articles published between 1998 and 2017. However, from 2018 onwards, there was a significant increase in publications, which continued in the following years until 2024. It is noted that the COVID-19 pandemic influenced the increase in publications. Figure 2 shows the number of studies published, in the context of the study, per year.

The articles analysed refer to several theories, namely learning theories, technology acceptance theories, and planned behaviour theory. The learning theory most explored in the articles is the Experiential Learning Theory. An analysis of learning theories and technology adoption models shows that the effectiveness of virtual reality (VR) in training depends on a balance between pedagogical design, usability, and organisational acceptance. Andragogy [21] and experiential learning [22] reinforce the importance of practical relevance and direct experience for adults. Cognitive theories, such as Multimedia Learning Theory [23] and Cognitive Load Theory [24], guide design to integrate multiple stimuli and reduce overload. Recent models, such as the Cognitive-Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL) [25] highlight the role of presence and agency for engagement, while the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) [26] and the Sociotechnical Systems Theory [27] broaden the analysis to the adoption and sustainability of innovation in organisational contexts. Together, these theoretical frameworks argue that the evaluation of VR training should consider not only cognitive performance gains, but also emotional, social, and technological factors that condition its effectiveness.

Table 2. Theories present in the articles includes.

Articles Included in SLR	Theory	Original Author of the Theory	Brief Definition	Relation with VR
[10,28]	Andragogy	[21]	Adult learners benefit from learning that has practical relevance and applicability in their personal or professional lives.	VR enhances the learning process by providing immersive and ecologically valid simulations that closely approximate real-world conditions.
[29,30,31,32,33,34]	Experiential Learning Theory	[22]	Experiences are what define us as humans, and experiential learning significantly increases learner retention rates.	VR provides an experience that deepens understanding of content, introduces new perspectives, and facilitates visual representations of complex concepts.
[32,35]	Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning	[23]	It focuses on generative learning, in which learners actively make sense of experiences and integrate newly constructed knowledge into mental schemas.	It has been adapted in more immersive environments, where it considers how students process multiple sensory stimuli and knowledge information, such as visual and auditory information, and integrate all knowledge information into a coherent mental model.
[36]	Cognitive-Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL)	[25]	Evidence-based framework for creating VR learning experiences	CAMIL identifies two psychological advantages of VR: presence and agency, which are positively influenced by technological factors such as immersion, control factors, and representational fidelity.
[37,38,39]	Technology Adoption Model (TAM)	[26]	Workers adopt new technologies based on their perceived ease of use and usefulness.	It allows us to explore users’ attitudes towards VR training modules.
[13]	Sociotechnical Systems Theory	[27]	Proposes that organisational effectiveness depends on the integration between technical systems (technology, processes) and social systems (people, culture, structure)	It allows us to explain and provide one of the most comprehensive approaches to the costs and benefits of the social subsystem of implementing VR as a training tool.
[16,40]	Cognitive Load Theory	[24]	Learning is more efficient when information is presented in a way that reduces cognitive overload.	VR can minimise this overload by providing interactive experiences that aid in the gradual assimilation of new knowledge.

provides a brief definition of the theories reflected in the articles included in the SLR and their relationship with VR technologies.

To analyse the main topics in the literature on the subject under study, the co-occurrence of the authors’ keywords contained in the 201 articles was analysed bibliometrically. The map (Figure 3) shows the relationship between the various terms and their respective associations within the thematic groups. This network allows for a qualitative interpretation of the keywords included by the authors in the metadata of each document. The resulting network contains 59 occurrences, with 58 links distributed across four sets and a total link strength of 92, which refers to the sum of the link strengths of a node in relation to all other nodes. The higher the co-occurrence frequency, the greater the link strength [41].

The extracted data were checked for accuracy of grouping and catalogued. A second researcher completed a synthesis of the coded data. According to authors such as van Eck & Waltman [42], co-occurrence analysis enables the identification of central themes in a field of study, promoting logical organisation in SLRs. Based on the sets of keyword co-occurrences, the studies contained in this SLR were analysed and linked to form four broad categories of studies: (i) Opportunities and Sectoral Applications in the Use of Virtual Reality (cluster 1, blue); (ii) Challenges in the Use of Virtual Reality (cluster 2, yellow); (iii) Skills Developed with Virtual Reality (cluster 3, green); and (iv) Integration of Virtual Reality with Organisational Strategies (cluster 4, red).

3.2. Thematic Groups

3.2.1. Opportunities and Sectoral Applications in the Use of Virtual Reality (Cluster 1)

VR offers several opportunities in educational settings, namely the possibility of synchronous and asynchronous learning, integration with intelligent agents, machine translation, and simulation of complex scenarios [43]. Other advantages include the possibility of safely simulating dangerous or costly scenarios, ensuring controlled training conditions [16,17] and without risks associated with human error, such as potential damage to equipment or injuries [44]. These environments also allow for real-time performance monitoring, immediate feedback, and personalisation of learning according to the individual needs of users [43]. This adaptive, learner-centred approach enhances the effectiveness of the training process, allowing tasks to be repeated continuously until they are fully assimilated [29]. Among the main opportunities presented, the possibility of training teams at any time and without the need for physical presence in the same location stands out, which translates into greater flexibility [9,17].

In addition, VR allows the creation of rare or dangerous scenarios, such as fires or severe traffic jams, which can be practised without real risks. The flexibility to repeat exercises and adapt parameters in real time allows for customised training and reinforces experiential learning [16,45]. Virtual reality can create a motivating, engaging and realistic training environment that allows different roles to be practised and encourages rapid adaptation to new contexts, reducing the learning curve [16,46,47]. VR training has been shown to elicit positive reactions in trainees and support them in acquiring and retaining information. VR emerges as a valid alternative training method for organisations aiming to enhance their safety training programmes. VR combines educational and entertainment values, facilitating enjoyable learning experiences. It allows positive learning experiences to be replicated, enabling trainees to be in an optimal state through intrinsic motivation, well-defined goals and adjustable difficulty levels [40,48].

As for sectoral applications of VR, its use has been adopted in medical education courses [49]. Through real-time training and immediate assessments, VR allows the creation of multiple scenarios tailored to real clinical needs, promoting motivation and engagement among trainees [49]. According to Le Corre et al. [50], other examples of VR application also focus on healthcare, more specifically on biomedical training. Youngblood et al. [9] reveal that VR can be designed to meet the demands of emergency medicine training, particularly in situations involving multiple trauma victims. However, the authors recognise the potential for extending its application to other sectors of healthcare [9].

Nathanael et al. [44] applied VR in the mechanical engineering and computer-aided manufacturing sector, specifically in training for the use of machines. They demonstrate how VR can be used to train operators in high-precision and high-risk tasks. It can also be used in pilot training, improving safety, cost-effectiveness and access to varied scenarios. VR promises immersive and interactive simulations that can improve the training experiences of flight crews [50]. Furthermore, according to Kwok et al. [45], a prototype was designed for application in the transport sector, namely for the underground, to provide a platform for stakeholders in the system to test their crisis intervention procedures in the virtual world, without affecting real underground traffic and train schedules. However, it is important to note that the authors mention that this prototype can be applied to other areas, such as factories, airports, hospitals, and convention and exhibition centres. Other authors use VR in emergency management at airports, such as Zarraonandia et al. [47]. Although Gulec et al. [51] studied the application of VR in software engineering, other areas where VR has been effectively applied are referenced, such as medicine, civil construction [52], education [6], sports [7] and military areas that have invested heavily in the research, development and implementation of virtual reality simulations and simulators for training and education [53,54,55].

3.2.2. Challenges of Using Virtual Reality (Cluster 2)

Despite the potential of VR, there are significant challenges in adopting VR, particularly due to users’ unfamiliarity with 3D technology and/or fear or discomfort with the simulated environment, which can hinder acceptance of VR technology. This may be because many potential users have never had contact with these environments, except in recreational contexts such as games or chats [9,43,56,57]. According to Ferracani et al. [49], other difficulties relate to the risk of user disorientation, the difficulty of presenting meaningful contextual options without resorting to traditional interfaces (such as 2D menus), and the limitation of the realism of collaboration when using only monitors or head-mounted displays (HMDs). This reduction in the immersive effect undermines the desired natural collaboration.

Furthermore, the implementation of these systems requires considerable investment in terms of technological infrastructure and content development [28,58]. Kwok et al. [45] confirm that among the challenges are the initial development costs, the need for specific technical equipment, and the requirement for accurate data on the actual system for the simulation to be valid. In the case of aviation, Duruaku et al. [59] also highlight significant overhead costs, including technical challenges, the technology learning curve, costs, and simulation sickness, which can hinder the adoption of VR for flight crew training. These authors point out that to use VR effectively, whether as a programmer, supplier, or end user, requires a substantial amount of specialised knowledge.

In addition, another challenge mentioned relates to the specific training that trainers need to use and adapt these environments to pedagogical and organisational requirements. Le Corre et al. [50] confirm that the complexity of the design of pedagogical scenarios, particularly the language based on UML (unified modelling language), is not intuitive for trainers. Obstacles may also lie in the fidelity between the virtual environment and the real equipment, which can affect execution time and the transfer of skills to the real world. This may be compounded by the cognitive and motor difficulty of interacting with traditional interfaces (mouse, keyboard, joystick), which can cause frustration among trainees. Furthermore, total immersion with the use of HMD can also lead to visual and social isolation from the trainer, hindering communication [16]. The presence of stimuli can overwhelm and distract students, thereby hindering their learning [35]. Finally, ensuring the simulator’s fidelity to reality can be demanding, so there is a need to validate the simulator’s effectiveness with real users to ensure that the pedagogical objectives are achieved and that the interface is sufficiently intuitive for all user profiles [47,60].

Although VR has made significant advances, the studies reviewed indicate that there are still challenges to be addressed. These relate to technical limitations, such as resolution, latency and hardware costs, as well as concerns related to user comfort and possible side effects. However, continuous advances in hardware, software, and content development are driving the growth and adoption of VR technology in the context of training [10].

3.2.3. Skills Developed with Virtual Reality (Cluster 3)

Virtual learning environments and virtual reality are effective tools for the integrated development of skills in different professional contexts. Bouras et al. [43] point out that the INVITE platform fosters communication skills, teamwork, autonomy, critical thinking and reflective capacity, supported by tools for monitoring and evaluating individual and collective performance. Hou et al. [61] identified clear benefits in problem solving, decision making, technical expertise, time management and fine motor coordination, especially in high-stress professional situations, reinforcing that experiential and task-based learning is enhanced by automatic feedback and continuous assessment. Ferracani et al. [49] also emphasise that the involvement of trainees in simulated tasks increases situational awareness, individual responsibility and the ability to follow protocols as a team, promoting verbal and non-verbal communication skills, which are essential in clinical environments. The procedural aspect is also emphasised by Le Corre et al. [50], who demonstrated that, after several attempts in virtual training, trainees significantly reduced their execution time and the need to consult instructions, demonstrating the acquisition of technical skills and consolidation of information in long-term memory. Similar results were obtained by Stefanidis et al. [62], who demonstrated improvements in technical precision, instrument control and bimanual dexterity, reinforced by the integration of theoretical knowledge.

In crisis and emergency contexts, the literature converges on the relevance of VR as a training tool. Kwok et al. [45] and Zarraonandia et al. [47] show that virtual simulations enhance skills such as decision-making under pressure, information management, team coordination, protocol compliance, and inter-institutional communication. Youngblood et al. [9] add that VR is particularly effective in developing leadership and resource management in high-pressure environments, offering the added advantage of allowing iterative and personalised training with immediate feedback.

In addition to technical skills, the development of cognitive and social skills is also noteworthy. Wyld [17] argues that virtual simulations promote problem solving and strategic thinking, while Gulec et al. [51] prove that immersion in project scenarios contributes to adaptation to different professional roles and the transfer of learning to real contexts. Brown et al. [16] reinforce this impact by identifying significant gains in autonomy, self-confidence and self-esteem.

In this context, recent literature highlights the role of virtual reality in strengthening so-called soft skills. Peisachovich et al. [30] consider it a true “empathy machine”, capable of stimulating emotional intelligence, social understanding, empathy and persuasion. In a scenario where automation and artificial intelligence are increasingly replacing technical tasks, these human skills are becoming increasingly critical, with VR being an educational resource capable of integrating them into training processes in an immersive and experiential way. Studies show that virtual reality simultaneously enhances technical, cognitive, social and emotional skills, consolidating itself as a strategic resource for training and development in multiple sectors, from healthcare to crisis management and organisational training [16,30,45].

3.2.4. The Integration of Virtual Reality with Organisational Strategies (Cluster 4)

The integration of virtual reality (VR) into organisational strategies has been widely explored in the literature to modernise and optimise training processes. Bouras et al. [43] highlight that the INVITE platform was designed to align training with the strategic objectives of organisations, adapting to both traditional hierarchical training models and collaborative and networked approaches, favouring a culture of continuous learning. Along these lines, Hou et al. [61] argue that virtual learning environments should complement traditional methods, fitting into competency models, continuous training plans, and performance evaluation systems to support human capital development and strengthen organisational competitiveness.

The applicability of these systems has been proven in specific contexts, such as healthcare. Ferracani et al. [49] demonstrate that VR can be integrated into continuing clinical training strategies and is accessible even with limited technological resources, while Le Corre et al. [50] present VIRTUALANALYZER as a scalable, adaptable, and low-cost pedagogical model that facilitates the transfer of knowledge to real-world contexts. Stefanidis et al. [62] reinforce this perspective by documenting the incorporation of VR into structured curricula at medical institutions, with progressively complex scenarios aligned with national and international training standards.

In emergency and crisis management contexts, VR emerges as a strategic element of training. Kwok et al. [45] and Zarraonandia et al. [47] show that its integration allows costly and sporadic physical exercises to be replaced or complemented by regular virtual training, which is lower in cost and risk and capable of collecting and analysing performance data to support decision-making and the continuous improvement of institutional responses. This monitoring capability strengthens security and resilience policies, ensuring more robust organisational preparedness.

The transformative dimension of VR has an impact on long-term strategies. Wyld [17] argues that virtual worlds represent more than a technological trend, constituting true tools for organisational transformation, capable of aligning training practices with the expectations of new generations and fostering more personalised and dynamic learning processes. Gulec et al. [51] demonstrate that modelling virtual environments based on real company data allows practical gaps to be filled and supports the evolution of internal processes. Nathanael et al. [44] add that integrating cognitive analysis into the design of virtual systems increases training and operational effectiveness, representing a viable strategy for industrial sectors seeking to reduce costs, increase safety and improve efficiency.

The pedagogical models of progressive integration proposed by Brown et al. [16] show that VR can structure gradual learning paths, reinforce the autonomy of the trainee and encourage co-creation between technicians and users. Youngblood et al. [9], in turn, demonstrate that the scalability and flexibility of VR enable the creation of hybrid training models, in which digital environments complement traditional pedagogical structures, making learning more efficient, sustainable, and tailored to the demands of the 21st century. The literature converges in demonstrating that the integration of virtual reality into organisational strategies is not limited to technological adoption but represents a structural transformation of training processes. VR is presented as a flexible, scalable and continuous improvement-oriented tool, capable of aligning skills development with the strategic objectives of organisations and responding innovatively to contemporary training and work challenges.

3.3. Conceptual Model

The conceptual model (Figure 4) derives from the qualitative analysis of the content of the studies explored in the SLR and is based on the cluster networks identified by VOSviewer. From the analysis of word co-occurrence clusters, we can identify the relationships between these keywords and the various interactive aspects that provide the range of content then applied to the development of the conceptual model.

3.3.1. The Influence of Virtual Reality on Organisations

VR offers new training and development opportunities for workers as it simulates the physical world, allowing workers to acquire new skills and interact with virtual objects and entities in real time. Workers experience a sense of presence and agency within the virtual environment and learn with greater motivation and flexibility according to their needs and in a way that is tailored to their job role [10,16,17,43,45]. Organisations are thus able to offer personalised online training to their employees, providing uniform standards for training programmes, regardless of their physical presence [1].

Proposition 1:

Virtual reality provides flexible, personalised and safe learning experiences for employees in various sectors of activity.

3.3.2. Challenges and Opportunities in the Use of Virtual Reality in Organisations

Similarly, VR enables synchronous and asynchronous learning, integration with intelligent agents, machine translation, and simulation of complex scenarios [16,17]. These environments can be customised [43] and allow for continuous repetition of tasks until new skills are acquired [29], while motivating workers to learn, as the training is engaging and close to their professional reality [16,46,47]. In addition, the implementation of these systems requires a high investment by organisations in terms of technological infrastructure and content development [28,58], as well as a high level of specialised knowledge to make the training realistic and effective [45,51]. Difficulties may also arise on the part of the trainer and the employee themselves in adapting to and engaging with this type of technology [9,16,43,56,57]. Despite these obstacles, the potential of VR technologies has been explored as a valuable addition to current training methods [4].

Proposition 2:

Despite the challenges of VR, its use in training has shown significant effects and advances within organisations.

3.3.3. Virtual Reality and Its Connection with Innovation and Development Strategies

The integration of VR has the potential to modernise and optimise training processes and align training with the strategic objectives of organisations, while promoting a culture of continuous learning [43]. Hou et al. [61] believe that virtual learning environments complement traditional methods and enable the development of human capital and strengthen organisational competitiveness. VR emerges as an innovative tool for organisational transformation, capable of aligning training practices with the expectations of new generations and fostering learning processes while reducing costs, increasing safety and improving efficiency [17]. A critical issue concerning virtual reality learning environments relates to their rapid technological obsolescence. Such obsolescence may undermine the long-term sustainability of these initiatives and progressively diminish the initial enthusiasm observed during the early years of platform adoption [63].

Proposition 3:

The use of VR in the context of vocational training enables the acquisition of technical and behavioural skills.

3.3.4. VR and Different Sectoral Applications

VR has been effectively applied in areas such as medicine [59], health [9,49,50], civil construction [52] engineering [44,59], education [6], sports [7], the military [55], transport and aviation [45,51]. This use offers the opportunity to train and develop technical, behavioural, cognitive, social and emotional skills, consolidating itself as a strategic resource for training and development in multiple sectors of activity [16,17,30,59]. Several studies show that, in the context of professional training, virtual reality applications have high potential to promote knowledge retention and stimulate meaningful learning processes [64,65]. However, these benefits are strongly conditioned by the instructional design and pedagogical structure underlying the applications, which are determining factors for the effectiveness of the results obtained [66].

Proposition 4:

Investments in VR-based training offer continuous improvement that enables the achievement of individual and organisational goals.

4. Study Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research

Despite the advantages mentioned, the research has limitations. First, most of the available studies focus on short-term results, with few longitudinal investigations exploring the lasting effects of VR-based training. In addition, much of the evidence analysed is based on case studies or small samples, limiting the generalisation of the results. Another limitation concerns unequal access to technological resources, which may compromise the effectiveness and equity of VR implementation in different organisational contexts. Furthermore, two databases (Scopus and Web of Sciences) were used to search for studies; although it is possible that more specialised databases contain additional relevant studies, it was considered that the inclusion of the two main databases ensures an adequate level of comprehensiveness, quality, and replicability, sufficient to achieve the objectives of this systematic review. Another limitation concerns keyword searches conducted exclusively in English, given that this language is the lingua franca of international scientific production and is the most established way to ensure comparability and global visibility of studies. It is acknowledged, however, that this decision may have led to the exclusion of relevant works published in other languages.

For future research,

Table 3. Suggestions for future research.

Topics Covered	Cluster	Suggestions for Future Research
Opportunities and Sectoral Applications in the Use of Virtual	1	- Study more technical and specialised professions with a particular focus on white-collar professionals.
Challenges in the Use of Virtual Reality	2	- Application of longitudinal studies to assess the long-term challenges of VR.
Skills Developed with Virtual Reality	3	- Study leadership skills, emotional intelligence, and empathy (in a scenario where automation and artificial intelligence increasingly replace technical tasks, these human skills emerge as increasingly critical and can be developed through VR). - Study the influence of AI on VR to understand the implications for training processes and skills acquisition and improvement in an integrated manner.
Integration of Virtual Reality with Organisational Strategies	4	- Identify increased motivation, collective and team performance after VR-based training processes. - Apply longitudinal studies to verify whether these organisational and individual results have an influence before and after the application of VR-based training processes. - Study the ethical dimension in the design of VR-based training processes and VR training environments. - Verify (stress management, motivation) the psychological effects on workers due to participation in VR-based training processes.

presents some suggestions related to the topic of virtual reality, training, and learning. The recommendations have been organised into distinct topics—Opportunities and Sectoral Applications in the Use of Virtual Reality, Challenges in the Use of Virtual Reality, Skills Developed with Virtual Reality, and Integration of Virtual Reality with Organisational Strategies—to facilitate understanding, enable more targeted analysis, and guide researchers in identifying specific areas that still require in-depth investigation.

5. Conclusions

Through a Systematic Literature Review (SLR), we sought to understand the evolution and impact of virtual reality on training and development, mapping studies from the Web of Science (WoS) and SCOPUS databases. We analysed 201 studies covering the period from 1998 to February 2025. The objectives outlined in this study were discussed considering the identified thematic clusters, allowing for an integrated analysis. The first objective, which aimed to verify recent transformations in training and human resources development and identify opportunities and sectoral applications of virtual reality, was reflected in Cluster 1 (blue), called Opportunities and Sectoral Applications in the Use of Virtual Reality. The second objective, focused on identifying the challenges of using virtual reality for professional training and skills development, corresponded to Cluster 2 (yellow), Challenges in the Use of Virtual Reality, in which technical, pedagogical, and organisational barriers related to the adoption of this technology emerged. The third objective, to determine which skills can be developed through virtual reality-based training programs, was reflected in Cluster 3 (green), Skills Developed with Virtual Reality, which brought together studies on soft skills, technical skills, and socio-emotional skills developed in immersive contexts. Finally, the fourth objective, which sought to investigate the role of virtual reality in organisational strategy and its integration into business processes, human development, was met by Cluster 4 (red), Integration of Virtual Reality with Organisational Strategies, which revealed the insertion of VR as part of innovation policies, digital transformation, and strategic talent management.

The results of this review offer relevant contributions for managers and organisations considering the adoption of Virtual Reality (VR) in training and development processes. First, the study identifies sectoral application opportunities, allowing organisations to conduct benchmarking and understand in which areas VR has the greatest potential impact. Second, by systematizing the main challenges related to implementation—such as costs, employee acceptance, technological infrastructure, and obsolescence—the review provides support for managers to anticipate risks and plan mitigation strategies. Third, the analysis highlights which competencies can be effectively developed through VR, offering practical guidance for designing training programs aligned with the organisation’s strategic needs. Furthermore, by integrating the discussion on VR with organisational strategies, the study reinforces that technology should not be seen solely as a pedagogical resource, but also as a tool for innovation and competitive advantage. Finally, by consolidating empirical evidence on opportunities, limitations, and outcomes, this review provides a solid foundation for assessing return on investment and developing data-driven internal technology adoption policies. Academically, the study’s added value lies in synthesizing fragmented knowledge, providing a clear framework for understanding VR in employee development and guiding both theory and future research.

This study highlighted the potential of Virtual Reality (VR) as a strategic training tool in an organisational context. Through literature analysis, it was possible to demonstrate that VR provides immersive, personalised, safe and motivating learning experiences, tailored to the needs of workers and the objectives of organisations. Its application has proven effective in multiple sectors—such as healthcare, engineering, education and transport—standing out as a versatile technology for the development of technical and behavioural skills.

From an organisational point of view, the contributions are significant, as VR allows for the standardisation of training programmes, reduces travel costs (when using non-immersive VR, which can be accessed on conventional computers without the need for devices such as glasses or immersion headsets), increases safety in risky contexts, and aligns training practices with innovation and competitiveness strategies. In addition, it promotes a culture of continuous learning, which is essential for the sustainability of organisations in the digital age. For employees, VR offers unique opportunities for flexible, practical, and job-focused learning, which contributes to increased motivation, training effectiveness, and knowledge retention.

This study stands out from the international literature by combining a comprehensive systematic review (201 studies between 1998 and 2025) with methodological rigour—PRISMA 2020 and previously registered in INPLASY—and by integrating bibliometric analysis (VOSviewer) and content analysis. The main innovation is the proposal of an original conceptual model that articulates opportunities, challenges, developed competencies, and the integration of virtual reality into organisational strategies. In addition, it highlights emerging dimensions, such as the development of social competencies (leadership, empathy, emotional intelligence) and ethical and cultural reflection, offering a future research agenda that expands the boundaries of the existing literature.

In conclusion, although there are technological and pedagogical challenges to overcome, the benefits of VR in the context of organisational training outweigh the current limitations. Further research is recommended to explore the long-term impacts of this technology and analyse its implementation in different cultural and organisational contexts to maximise its value for companies and workers.