Applicability of Magnetic Susceptibility Measurements on Cave Sediments in Karst Areas: Insight from Dinaric Karst (Velebit Mt., Croatia)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Geological Setting
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Magnetic Susceptibility Measurement
3.1.1. Field Magnetic Susceptibility Measurement
3.1.2. Laboratory Magnetic Susceptibility Measurement
3.2. X-ray Powder Diffraction Analysis (XRD)
4. Results
4.1. Field Measurements of the Magnetic Susceptibility
4.1.1. Slovačka Cave In Situ Magnetic Susceptibility Measurement
4.1.2. Crnopac Cave System (former Kita Gaćešina Cave) In Situ Magnetic Susceptibility Measurement
4.2. Laboratory Measurements Results
4.2.1. Laboratory Measurements of Magnetic Susceptibility
4.2.2. XRD Analysis
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Sasowsky, I.D. Clastic Sediments in Caves—Imperfect Recorders of Processes in Karst. Acta Carsologica 2007, 36, 143–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- White, W.B. Cave sediments and paleoclimate. J. Cave Karst Stud. 2007, 69, 76–93. [Google Scholar]
- Stroj, A.; Lacković, D.; Sasowsky, I.D.; Bajo, P.; Glumac, B. The application of cave morphological and sedimentary deposit investigations to unravel tectonic history and landscape evolution: Insights from Veternica Cave, Medvednica Mountain, Croatia. Geomorphology 2024, 446, 109000. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lacković, D.; Glumac, B.; Asmerom, Y.; Stroj, A. Evolution of the Veternica Cave (Medvednica Mountain, Croatia) drainage system: Insights from the distribution and dating of cave deposits. Geol. Croat. 2011, 64, 213–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stroj, A.; Paar, D. Water and air dynamics within a deep vadose zone of a karst massif: Observations from the Lukina jama—Trojama cave system (1.431 m) in Dinaric karst (Croatia). Hydrol. Process. 2019, 33, 551–561. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kurečić, T.; Hajek Tadesse, V.; Wacha, L.; Horvat, M.; Trinajstić, N.; Mišur, I. Sub-recent microfauna within allogenic sediments at the bottom of a deep cave, Njemica (Biokovo Mt., Croatia). Int. J. Speleol. 2022, 51, 223–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bakrač, K.; Sirenko, O.; Hruševar, D.; Baniček, I.; Novak, V.; Kletečki, N.; Oros Sršen, A. First palynological results from Spila nad Procjepom cave, Mljet island (Croatia). Geol. Croat. 2024, 77, 29–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zupan Hajna, N.; Bosák, P.; Pruner, P.; Mihevc, A.; Hercman, H.; Horáček, I. Karst sediments in Slovenia: Plio-Quaternary multi-proxy records. Quat. Int. 2020, 546, 4–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Malez, M.; Smith, F.H.; Radovčić, J.; Rukavina, D. Upper Pleistocene Hominids from Vindija, Croatia, Yugoslavia. Curr. Anthropol. 1980, 21, 365–367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kurečić, T.; Bočić, N.; Wacha, L.; Bakrač, K.; Grizelj, A.; Tresić Pavičić, D.; Lüthgens, C.; Sironić, A.; Radović, S.; Redovniković, L.; et al. Changes in Cave Sedimentation Mechanisms During the Late Quaternary: An Example From the Lower Cerovačka Cave, Croatia. Front. Earth Sci. 2021, 9, 672229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zupan Hajna, N.; Mihevc, A.; Pruner, P.; Bosák, P. Paleomagnetic research on karst sediments in Slovenia. Int. J. Speleol. 2010, 39, 47–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dearing, J.A. Environmental Magnetic Susceptibility: Using the Bartington MS2 System; Bartington Instruments: Oxford, UK, 1994. [Google Scholar]
- Suryanata, P.B.; Bijaksana, S.; Abdurrachman, M.; Dahrin, D.; Pratama, A.; Desi Wulan Ndari, N.R.; Fajar, S.J. Preliminary Petromagnetic Study of 1849, 1926, 1963, 1968 and 1974 Surface Lavas from Batur Volcano, Bali, Indonesia: Insight on the Magmatic Process of Source and Rock Magnetic Nature. Rud.-Geološko-Naft. Zb. 2023, 38, 31–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Da Silva, A.C.; Whalen, M.T.; Hladil, J.; Chadimova, L.; Chen, D.; Spassov, S.; Boulvain, F.; Devleeschouwer, X. Magnetic Susceptibility Application: A window onto Ancient Environments and Climatic Variations. Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ. 2015, 414, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pamić, J.; Gušić, I.; Jelaska, V. Geodynamic evolution of the Central Dinarides. Tectonophysics 1998, 297, 251–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vlahović, I.; Tišljar, J.; Velić, I.; Matičec, D. Evolution of the Adriatic Carbonate Platform: Paleogeography, main events and depositional dynamics. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 2005, 220, 333–360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schmid, S.M.; Bernoulli, D.; Fügenschuh, B.; Matenco, L.; Schefer, S.; Schuster, R.; Tischler, M.; Ustaszewski, K. The Alpine-Carpathian-Dinaridic orogenic system: Correlation and evolution of tectonic units. Swiss J. Geosci. 2008, 101, 139–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Korbar, T. Orogenic evolution of the External Dinarides in the NE Adriatic region: A model constrained by tectonostratigraphy of Upper Cretaceous to Paleogene carbonates. Earth-Sci. Rev. 2009, 96, 4296–4312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zupan Hajna, N. Chapter 40—Dinaric karst: Geography and geology. In Encyclopedia of Caves; White, W.B., Culver, D.C., Pipan, T., Eds.; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2019; pp. 353–362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mamužić, P.; Milan, A.; Korolija, B.; Borović, I.; Majcen, Ž. Basic Geological Map of SFR Yugoslavia, 1:100000, Rab Sheet (L 33-114); Geol. Institute Zagreb, Federal Geol. Institute Belgrade: Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 1969. [Google Scholar]
- Velić, I.; Bahun, S.; Sokač, B.; Galović, I. Basic Geological Map of SFR Yugoslavia, 1:100,000, Otočac Sheet (L 33-115); Geol. Institute Zagreb, Federal Geol. Institute Belgrade: Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 1974. [Google Scholar]
- Sokač, B.; Nikler, L.; Velić, I.; Mamužić, P. Basic Geological Map of SFR Yugoslavia, 1:100,000, Gospić Sheet (L 33-127); Geol. Institute Zagreb, Federal Geol. Institute Belgrade: Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 1974. [Google Scholar]
- Ivanović, A.; Sakač, K.; Marković, S.; Sokač, B.; Šušnjar, M.; Nikler, L.; Šušnjara, A. Basic Geological Map of SFR Yugoslavia, 1:100,000, Obrovac Sheet (L 33-140); Geol. Institute Zagreb, Federal Geol. Institute Belgrade: Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 1973. [Google Scholar]
- Majcen, Ž.; Korolija, B.; Sokač, B.; Nikler, L. Basic Geological Map of SFR Yugoslavia, 1:100,000, Zadar Sheet (L 33-127); Geol. Institute Zagreb, Federal Geol. Institute Belgrade: Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 1963–1969. [Google Scholar]
- Mamužić, P.; Milan, A. Basic Geological Map of SFR Yugoslavia, 1:100,000, Geology of Rab Sheet (L 33-114); Geol. Institute Zagreb, Federal Geol. Institute Belgrade: Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 1973; p. 35. (In Croatian) [Google Scholar]
- Sokač, B.; Bahun, S.; Velić, I.; Galović, I. Basic Geological Map of SFR Yugoslavia, 1:100,000, Geology of Otočac Sheet (L 33-115); Geol. Institute Zagreb, Federal Geol. Institute Belgrade: Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 1976; p. 38. (In Croatian) [Google Scholar]
- Sokač, B.; Ščavničar, B.; Velić, I. Basic Geological Map of SFR Yugoslavia, 1:100,000, Geology of Gospić Sheet (L 33-127); Geol. Institute Zagreb, Federal Geol. Institute Belgrade: Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 1976; p. 38. (In Croatian) [Google Scholar]
- Ivanović, A.; Sakač, K.; Sokač, B.; Vrsalović-Carević, I.; Zupanič, J. Basic Geological Map of SFR Yugoslavia, 1:100,000, Geology of Obrovac Sheet (L 33-140); Geol. Institute Zagreb, Federal Geol. Institute Belgrade: Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 1976; p. 38. (In Croatian) [Google Scholar]
- Majcen, Ž.; Korolija, B. Basic Geological Map of SFR Yugoslavia, 1:100,000, Geology of Zadar Sheet (L 33-127); Geol. Institute Zagreb, Federal Geol. Institute Belgrade: Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 1973; p. 38. (In Croatian) [Google Scholar]
- Bahun, S. The tectogenesis of Mt. Velebit and the formation of Jelar-deposits. Geološki Vjesn. 1974, 27, 35–51. [Google Scholar]
- Bahun, S.; Herak, M. The role of the calcareous breccias (Jelar Formation) in the tectonic interpretation of the High Karst Zone of the Dinarides. Geološki Vjesn. 1979, 31, 49–59. [Google Scholar]
- Velić, I.; Velić, J. Geological Guidebook through the Velebit Nature Park; Denona: Zagreb, Croatia, 2022; p. 399. (In Croatian) [Google Scholar]
- Velić, I.; Velić, J. Geological Guidebook through the Northern Velebit National Park; Denona: Zagreb, Croatia, 2009; p. 143. (In Croatian) [Google Scholar]
- Velić, I.; Velić, J.; Vlahović, I.; Cvetković, M. Geological Guidebook through the Paklenica Nature Park; Denona: Zagreb, Croatia, 2014; p. 325. (In Croatian) [Google Scholar]
- Sudar, V.; Aljinović, D.; Smirčić, D.; Barudžija, U. Composition and provenance of Gröden sandstone from the Velebit Mts. Rudarsko-Geološko-Naftni Zbornik 2016, 31, 53–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Velić, J.; Velić, I.; Kljajo, D.; Protrka, K.; Škrabić, H.; Špoljar, Z. An geological overview of glacial accumulation and erosional occurrences at the Velebit and the Biokovo Mts., Croatia. Rudarsko-Geološko-Naftni Zbornik 2017, 32, 77–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Velić, I.; Velić, J. The geological significance of Majstorska Cesta—A historical road on Velebit Mt. with a special review of Jurassic carbonate rocks. Rudarsko-Geološko-Naftni Zbornik 2020, 35, 45–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smirčić, D.; Japundžić, D.; Gaberšek, N.; Aljinović, D.; Prlj-Šimić, N.; Borčić, N.; Krizmanić, K.; Pavić, I.; Barudžija, U. First record of the upper Illyrian ammonoid subzone marker Reitziites reitzi in the Karst Dinarides. Rudarsko-Geološko-Naftni Zbornik 2020, 35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Geological Map of the Republic of Croatia at a Scale 1:300,000; Croatian Geological Survey: Zagreb, Croatia. 2009. Available online: http://webgis.hgi-cgs.hr/gk300/default.aspx (accessed on 15 April 2024). (In Croatian).
- Velić, I.; Vlahović, I. Guide to the Geological Map of the Republic of Croatia at a Scale 1:300,000; Croatian Geological Survey: Zagreb, Croatia, 2009; p. 141. (In Croatian) [Google Scholar]
- SatisGeo, s. r. o. Instruments for Geophysics and Environment: Kappameter KM-7 Magnetic Susceptibility Meter. Available online: https://satisgeo.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/KM-7-1.pdf (accessed on 10 November 2023).
- Warr, L.N. IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols. Mineral. Mag. 2021, 85, 291–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bondar, K.; Ridush, B. Rockmagnetic and palaeomagnetic studies of unconsolidated sediments of Bukovynka Cave (Chernivtsi region, Ukraine). Quat. Int. 2014, 357, 125–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ellwood, B.B.; Petruso, K.M.; Harrold, F.B.; Korkuti, M. Paleoclimate characterization and intra-site correlation using magnetic susceptibility measurements: An example from Koispol Cave, Albania. J. Field Archaeol. 1996, 23, 263–271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cao, Z.; Zhang, K.; He, J.; Yang, Z.; Zhou, Z. Linking rock desertification to soil erosion by investigating changes in soil magnetic susceptibility profiles on karst slopes. Geoderma 2021, 389, 114949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
SL1-3 | KG1-14 | KG2-8 | |
---|---|---|---|
calcite (Cal) | presence/high | high/very high | absence |
siderite (Sd) | absence | possible | absence |
quartz (Qz) | high | presence/high | very high |
plagioclase (Pl) | absence | absence | possible |
K-feldspar (Kfs) | possible | possible | possible |
goethite (Gth) | presence/high | presence | Gth and/or Hem presence |
hematite (Hem) | possible | possible | |
gibbsite (Gbs) | presence | presence | absence |
anatase (Ant) | possible | possible | absence |
magnetite (Mag) | absence | possible | absence |
unidentified mineral (X1) | absence | absence | presence |
unidentified mineral (X2) | absence | presence | absence |
mica (Mca) | presence/high | high | possible |
mixed layer/irregular minerals (MM/IM) | IM possible | IM possible | possible |
kaolinite (Kln) | high | Kln and/or Chl high | possible |
chlorite (Chl) | possible | possible | |
14 Å minerals (14 Å) | high/very high | Vrm, Sme, MM high | absence |
amorphous component (AC) | presence | presence | possible |
Profile | 10 kHz/0.46 kHz | 10 kHz/4.64 kHz | 0.46 kHz/4.64 kHz | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cc | SL1 | 0.8415 | 0.8461 | 0.9997 |
KG1 | −0.4951 | −0.4829 | 0.9973 | |
KG2 | 0.6726 | 0.6528 | 0.9988 | |
RMSE | SL1 | 22.9418 | 24.4087 | 5.8791 |
KG1 | 26.1759 | 30.0549 | 7.6723 | |
KG2 | 10.4041 | 0.4909 | 0.9723 | |
MAE | SL1 | 16.6370 | 18.0074 | 3.8444 |
KG1 | 20.7800 | 25.1400 | 7.6267 | |
KG2 | 7.9091 | 8.2545 | 0.7455 | |
RSQ | SL1 | 0.7082 | 0.7159 | 0.9994 |
KG1 | 0.2452 | 0.2332 | 0.9946 | |
KG2 | 0.4524 | 0.4262 | 0.9976 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Barudžija, U.; Kamenski, A.; Paar, D.; Malvić, T. Applicability of Magnetic Susceptibility Measurements on Cave Sediments in Karst Areas: Insight from Dinaric Karst (Velebit Mt., Croatia). Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 6973. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14166973
Barudžija U, Kamenski A, Paar D, Malvić T. Applicability of Magnetic Susceptibility Measurements on Cave Sediments in Karst Areas: Insight from Dinaric Karst (Velebit Mt., Croatia). Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(16):6973. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14166973
Chicago/Turabian StyleBarudžija, Uroš, Ana Kamenski, Dalibor Paar, and Tomislav Malvić. 2024. "Applicability of Magnetic Susceptibility Measurements on Cave Sediments in Karst Areas: Insight from Dinaric Karst (Velebit Mt., Croatia)" Applied Sciences 14, no. 16: 6973. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14166973
APA StyleBarudžija, U., Kamenski, A., Paar, D., & Malvić, T. (2024). Applicability of Magnetic Susceptibility Measurements on Cave Sediments in Karst Areas: Insight from Dinaric Karst (Velebit Mt., Croatia). Applied Sciences, 14(16), 6973. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14166973