A Review on Distribution System State Estimation Algorithms
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. DSSE Special Attributes
3. DSSE Fundamentals and Main Algorithms
3.1. State Vectors
NV-DSSE | BC-DSSE | |
---|---|---|
Configurations | All (radial, meshed, etc.) [23] | Mostly limited to radial |
Coordinates | Polar or rectangular [17,23,24,25,26] | Mostly rectangular [27,28,29,30] |
Implementation | More complex | Relatively easy [9] |
Sensitivity (weight variations, etc.) [11] | Higher (might affect convergence) | Lower |
Computational time [9,11] | Higher | Lower |
Compatibility with transmission system state estimation | Yes [22] | No |
3.2. DSSE Algorithms
3.2.1. Conventional, Model-Based Algorithms
3.2.2. Forecasting-Aided Algorithms
3.2.3. Data-Driven Algorithms
3.2.4. Summary and Comparison between DSSE Algorithms
4. Auxiliary Algorithms
4.1. Observability
Method | Description | Advantages and Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
GMM and EM [70,71,72] | Probabilistic and statistical approaches using Gaussian distributions, correlations, etc. | Mature algorithms, easy implementation, but with increased sensitivity and difficulties when it comes to large systems. |
Correlation coefficients [72] | ||
DNN [74] | Solutions with learning-based approaches, using mostly neural networks. | Modern, advanced algorithms, but with database requirements. |
PDP [75] | ||
NARX [76] |
4.2. Bad Data Detection
Method | Description | Advantages and Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Model-based [78,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98] | -norm [84,85,86,87,88,89], LNR [90,91,92,93,94], Chi-square [78,95,96,97], Combination [98] | Robust and simple methods. Not as accurate. |
Data-driven [82,96,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109] | LR [99], SVM [96,100,101,102,103], ANN [100,104], RNN [82,103], CNN [105], MSA [102], k-NN [106], ENN [106], KMC [107], FC [108,109] | Very accurate methods. Need large amounts of data. |
4.3. Meter Placement
5. Technical Requirements and Applications
5.1. Technical Requirements
5.2. Applications
Application | Approach |
---|---|
PV [51,134,135] | Model based, such as WLS [134], WLAV [135] but also FASE, such as EKF variations [51]. |
PV and WT [136] | Data-driven DSSE, with DNN [136]. |
PV, WT and diesel generator [137] | Model-based WLS DSSE coupled with DNN [137]. |
EV charging [50] | FASE DSSE, with a variation of EKF [50]. |
6. Future Trends and Challenges
7. Conclusions
- WLS is the most commonly used algorithm, not only in theoretical development but also in actual applications.
- Data-driven algorithms challenge the dominance of model-based counterparts.
- DSSE can play an important role in the ongoing energy transition, but in order to do so in a large scale, standardized solutions should be established.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Method | Description | Advantages and Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
WLS [31,32,33,34,35,36] | Minimization of the weighted residuals between the estimated and measured values. Objective function (11). | Common, simple, fast model-based approach, but sensitive to data. |
LAV [37,38] | Minimization of the sum of absolute values of measurement residuals. Objective function (12). | Model-based approaches. Mostly variations of WLS, trying to overcome the issue of sensitivity to bad data and model parameters. Enhanced robustness but also limited implementation in literature and higher resources requirements such as computational cost, memory usage, etc. Information regarding the architecture and parameters of the distribution system is a necessity. |
WLAV [39] | Variation of LAV including weights. Objective function (13). | |
LTS [40] | Utilization of selected number of residuals in the objective function (14). | |
LMS [41] | Use of the median in the objective function (15). | |
GM [42,43] | Generalized maximum-likelihood approach using the Huber cost function in (16). | |
Kalman filter [46,47,48] | FASE, providing recursive updates of the estimated states with the use of Kalman filter and dynamic models such as (17). | Changes in normal operation can be tracked. Further, since FASE is based on forecasts by nature, missing measurements can be addressed with the use of the forecasted states. However, this sort of algorithms is more complex and not as widely used as WLS. |
EKF [49,50,51,52] | FASE, extended variation of Kalman filter with the use of Taylor series for linearization of nonlinear systems. | Widely used variation of Kalman filter for linearization of nonlinear systems. Yet, not as widely used as WLS. |
UKF [52,53] | FASE, variation of Kalman filter with the use of UT for linearization of nonlinear systems. | Variation of Kalman filter for linearization of nonlinear systems where no explicit calculation of Jacobian or Hessian matrices is necessary. Limited use of this approach in literature. |
ANN [61,62] | Purely data-driven DSSE approach including three layers, trained with data provided by the DSO. | Modern, data-driven approach, where the sensitivity/accuracy regarding model parameters, initial conditions, etc. does not affect the result. However, an adequate database is required. |
DNN [63] | Data-driven approach, sub-category of ANN, with more hidden layers. | |
Physics-aware neural network [64,65,66] | Data-driven approach where the neural network takes into account the structure of the distribution network. | Advanced, data-driven approach where the physics of the network are not overlooked, thus prohibiting the overfitting behavior of the algorithm. Yet, in this case too, an adequate database is required. |
Hybrid [67,68] | Various possibilities, e.g., [67]: DNN-based DSSE, supported by random forest algorithm for topology identification. WLAV is used to ensure the robustness of the estimation. | Combination of the advantages of various sorts of algorithms at the cost of having a less simple methodology. |
Method | Description | Advantages and Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Rule-based [21] | Set of rules for meter placement with low cost. | Easy and fast algorithms, but not optimal. |
Metaheuristic [114,115,116,117] | GA [114], PSO [115], fruit fly [116], TS [117], etc. for: (i) maximization of accuracy or, (ii) minimization of units while sustaining observability, etc. | Efficient bio-inspired algorithms which do not guarantee global optimal solutions. |
Optimization [19,25,118] | MISDP, etc., usually for the maximization of accuracy. | Optimal, advanced algorithms, more demanding than the others. |
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Fotopoulou, M.; Petridis, S.; Karachalios, I.; Rakopoulos, D. A Review on Distribution System State Estimation Algorithms. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 11073. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122111073
Fotopoulou M, Petridis S, Karachalios I, Rakopoulos D. A Review on Distribution System State Estimation Algorithms. Applied Sciences. 2022; 12(21):11073. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122111073
Chicago/Turabian StyleFotopoulou, Maria, Stefanos Petridis, Ioannis Karachalios, and Dimitrios Rakopoulos. 2022. "A Review on Distribution System State Estimation Algorithms" Applied Sciences 12, no. 21: 11073. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122111073
APA StyleFotopoulou, M., Petridis, S., Karachalios, I., & Rakopoulos, D. (2022). A Review on Distribution System State Estimation Algorithms. Applied Sciences, 12(21), 11073. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122111073