The Evolution Characteristics of Traditional Residential Types of Muslim Descendants in Quanzhou During the Song–Yuan Dynasties (960–1368) of China from an Immigration Localization Perspective

Abstract

The prosperity of the Maritime Spice Route in China during the Song–Yuan dynasties (960–1368) propelled Quanzhou into a global hub for maritime trade and cultural integration. A large number of Muslims settled in Quanzhou via maritime routes, living and multiplying over generations—their journey fully documenting the localization trajectory of the immigrant group. To explore the relationship between the evolution of their traditional residence types and immigration localization, this study takes 185 “one bright hall and two dark rooms” traditional residences of the Ding’s Hui ethnic group in Chendai as an example, constructing a “4 × 6” matrix framework via the spatiotemporal biaxial coordinate classification method, with an integrated application of statistics, field surveying and mapping, Space Syntax, and genealogical document analysis. Results reveal that 15 of the 24 theoretical residence types are effectively preserved, forming a “prototype + combined type” evolutionary chain. Residence-type acceptance presents distinct traits, Class A as the foundational form, Class D as the mainstream, and Classes B and C as transitional types, a pattern reflecting the comprehensive influence of construction land conditions, living patterns, and local construction concepts on residence-type selection. Significant disparities in average connectivity between the central courtyard and various core public spaces embody the multi-branch small-family cohabitation mode and verify the localization development trajectory of residential space. The evolution of this residence-type system is confirmed to feature three core characteristics—nonlinearity, integrated and diversified fusion, and spatial constraint—and proposes preservation strategies for double-standard dimensional, multicultural and identifiability qualities, which provide a scientific reference for the protection and renewal of architectural heritage in Hui ethnic communities and similar immigrant settlements on China’s southeast coast.

1. Introduction

1.1. Research Background

Population migration constitutes a core driver of global cultural dissemination and cross-cultural integration [1]. As a key research topic in this context, immigration localization has long garnered extensive attention across multiple disciplines, including history, anthropology, sociology, geography, and architecture [2]. Traditional residences, as material carriers of immigration localization history, authentically record the localization trajectory of immigrant groups in religious adherence, cultural adaptation, and spatial utilization [3]. As concrete material samples for analyzing the inherent mechanisms of immigration localization, the traditional residences of descendants of Muslim immigrants in Quanzhou during the Song–Yuan Dynasties serve as an ideal research carrier for this field.

During the Song–Yuan Dynasties (960–1368), the unprecedented prosperity of the Maritime Spice Route propelled Quanzhou to emerge as a global hub for maritime trade and cultural integration [4,5]. A large number of Muslim merchants arrived via maritime routes, settled locally and multiplied, thus forming a distinctive coastal Muslim immigrant community. Following the Yisibaxi Uprising at the end of the Yuan Dynasty, Quanzhou’s local Muslim community suffered a devastating blow [5]. Most community members were forced to migrate, with only a small number of descendants remaining in areas around Quanzhou Bay. The Chendai Ding’s Hui ethnic group (later referred to as the Ding clan) in Chendai Town is one of the most representative surviving communities [5]. According to records in the Genealogy of the Ding’s Hui ethnic group in Chendai and verification of existing physical relics [6,7,8], the clan has preserved traditional residences spanning historical stages from the early Ming to the late Qing Dynasty (1368–1912) since its settlement. The evolutionary trajectory of its architectural forms is clear and traceable, supported by complete genealogical documents and physical remains, making it a typical case for studying the localization process and architectural spatial evolution of descendants of Muslim immigrants along China’s southeast coast against the backdrop of the Maritime Spice Route. The development of traditional residences of the Ding’s Hui ethnic group in Chendai Town is deeply intertwined with the mechanisms of immigration localization. These residences not only retain core characteristics of Muslim culture but also continuously adapt to Quanzhou’s local building logic and living needs. The evolutionary process of their residence types stands as a direct material manifestation of the integration and symbiosis of immigrant and local cultures [9,10].

1.2. Research Significance

This study bears both theoretical value and practical significance for the interdisciplinary research of immigration localization and architectural typology. First, with traditional residences as the material carrier, a quantitative research method and reusable evaluation criteria for multicultural integrated immigrant architecture are developed, revealing the inherent mechanisms of immigration localization in the material space dimension. It enriches historical records of the daily living patterns of immigrant groups, supplements regional historical and cultural research data, and provides unique architectural heritage evidence for verifying Quanzhou’s historical status as a global maritime trade center during the Song–Yuan Dynasties. Furthermore, based on the evolutionary characteristics of traditional residences in the context of immigration localization, scientific recommendations are proposed for the protection and renewal of architectural heritage in Hui ethnic settlements and similar immigrant communities along China’s southeast coast, offering operable theoretical guidance for the sustainable development of such cultural heritage.

1.3. Theoretical Assumptions

From the perspective of immigration localization, combined with the theory of architectural process typology, this study defines the localized connotation of immigrant architectural types: Core elements of immigrant architecture (form, layout, design concept, etc.)—taking their traditional residences as an example—undergo continuous evolution driven by the dual forces of cultural adaptation and survival needs of the immigrant group during the three-stage development of immigration localization (“marginal stage—integration stage—fusion stage”). These elements exhibit dual characteristics of linear temporal inheritance and nonlinear spatial combination, ultimately forming an architectural-type system that integrates the inherent cultural traits of immigrants and the local characteristics of the settlement, which also serves as a direct material manifestation of the immigration localization process [11].

1.4. Research Purpose

Based on the aforementioned theoretical assumptions, with the traditional residences of the Ding’s Hui ethnic group in Chendai (hereafter referred to as the Ding clan) as the research case, three core research objectives are established: (1) taking traditional residences as material carriers, revealing the complete evolutionary process of the traditional residence types of the Ding clan from the perspective of immigration localization [12] and analyzing the connotations of their clan, customs, beliefs, and lifestyles; (2) taking architectural process typology as the core, developing standardized and operable mixed research methods, integrating statistics, field surveying and mapping, Space Syntax, and other approaches to form a research paradigm applicable to cross-cultural integrated immigrant residences; (3) establishing three quantitative indicators—evolutionary retention rate, type acceptance degree, and average connectivity—to verify the scientificity and rationality of type classification, thereby enriching the theoretical achievements of interdisciplinary research on immigration localization and architectural typology.

2. Literature Review

To support the theoretical assumptions and research objectives regarding the evolution of traditional residence types from the perspective of immigration localization, this section systematically synthesizes existing research findings and core limitations in two key fields—immigration localization and architectural typology. It clarifies research entry points and technical pathways, laying a theoretical and practical foundation for the subsequent development of research methods and implementation of research content.

2.1. Research Related to Immigration Localization

The academic community has developed a three-stage theoretical framework of “marginal—integration—fusion” for immigration localization [13], which is widely applied in the study of immigrant groups across different regions and types worldwide, accurately explaining the adaptive evolutionary laws of immigrant groups’ material and intangible cultures. For example, research on the localization of foreign refugees in Germany, centered on social–spatial interaction, shows its evolutionary traits align closely with these three stages. The entire process of these refugees—from initial resettlement to integration with local society and ultimately long-term settlement—has become a typical sample for immigration research theory [14]. The localization development of the Ding’s Hui ethnic group in Chendai Town, involving the integration of immigrant cultural elements (e.g., beliefs, customs, and living patterns) with the local culture of the settlement area, fully validates the evolutionary logic of these three stages [6,7,8,9].

2.1.1. Marginal Stage

In the early immigration phase, the ethnic group exists on the dual margins of the settlement area’s geographical and social space. Through internal mutual support, closed settlements are formed, with only superficial interactions with local society and an extremely low degree of cultural integration. This trait is common in the early development of immigrant settlements worldwide [13,14]. For instance, foreign immigrants in modern America mostly settled in urban fringe areas, facing challenges such as a lack of community discourse power [15].

2.1.2. Integration Stage

Spatial and social barriers between immigrants and local society gradually break down. Residential layouts shift from concentration to dispersion, and the depth and breadth of cross-ethnic interactions expand steadily, with cultural integration becoming the core of development in this stage [16,17]. For example, Hakka tulou preserves the core characteristics of Central Plains courtyard layouts, housing families with multiple branches in large-scale residences. Adapted to the mountainous geographical environment of Fujian, tulou features defensive spaces to ensure living safety and achieves in-depth integration with the surrounding society through decentralized layouts [18].

2.1.3. Fusion Stage

Immigrants achieve in-depth integration with the settlement area. Social networks transcend ethnic boundaries, and a two-way adaptive model of in-depth cultural integration takes shape [9,19,20,21]. For example, Peranakan Chinese in Singapore have deeply integrated into local society while preserving the core characteristics of clan culture [22,23,24,25].

2.2. Research on Typology and Morphology

Architectural typology and morphology are core disciplines for analyzing the characteristics and evolutionary laws of architectural and urban forms. Quantitative research methods have driven their development toward greater quantification and scientific rigor [26]. Existing research has formed three core methodological approaches, single-sample static research, multi-sample typological comparison research, and process typology research, each supported by mature quantitative tools and professional software [26].

2.2.1. Single-Sample Static Research

This method focuses on individual buildings, blocks, or settlements, conducting quantitative analysis of the attributes of single morphological elements. It primarily adopts two approaches—Space Syntax and Spacematrix—supported by dedicated software. Space Syntax, using software such as Depthmap 10.14.00b and SDNA [25], constructs topological relationships of architectural space, calculates indicators including average connectivity and integration, and quantitatively analyzes the accessibility of architectural street networks and the usage logic of core public spaces [27,28]. The Spacematrix method, built on the GIS platform [29], imports data on floor area ratio, building density, and building height to quantitatively analyze architectural form and development intensity, enabling automatic identification and intuitive visualization of architectural morphological characteristics.

2.2.2. Multi-Sample Type Comparison Research

This method conducts horizontal comparative analysis of multiple samples with similarities or differences. It mainly adopts multi-factor integrated quantitative methods such as Form Syntax and GIS spatial data fusion [30], and analysis in conjunction with Origin 2022. Form Syntax, with ArcGIS as its core platform [31], integrates single-factor methods such as Space Syntax and Spacematrix to achieve comprehensive quantification of multiple morphological elements at the block scale. GIS spatial data fusion leverages spatial analysis and visualization functions to unify data input and conduct cross-dimensional comparisons of architectural forms and spatial layouts across multiple samples. Combined with Origin 2022, it enables statistical analysis and charting of quantitative data, clearly revealing the morphological commonalities and differences among different samples.

2.2.3. Process Typology Research

Breaking through the static analysis of typologies, this core method realizes dynamic evolutionary analysis of architectural forms [32]. Taking the temporal development axis and spatial combination axis as dual backbones, it systematically classifies typologies formed at various stages of a single sample’s historical evolution, defines their hierarchical relationships, and conducts quantitative data collection and qualitative characteristic analysis in combination with historical geography, documentary research, and field surveys. This method focuses on typological prototype tracing, spatial expansion paths, and phased evolutionary characteristics, exploring the social, cultural, and practical demand-driven mechanisms behind morphological changes. Its technical implementation often relies on quantitative software such as GIS and Space Syntax [33], integrating statistical analysis and field surveying and mapping. For complex evolutionary scenarios such as cultural integration and regional adaptation, mixed quantitative methods are also adopted for multi-dimensional comprehensive analysis.

2.3. Existing Research and Its Shortcomings

At present, the academic community has conducted cross-integration research on the three-stage theory of immigration localization (“marginal stage—integration stage—fusion stage”) with architectural typology and urban morphology. Relevant research results have verified the applicability of this theory in material space analysis [12], and relatively mature research paths have been formed in fields such as architectural typology evolution and quantitative analysis of spatial morphology [34], laying a theoretical and methodological foundation for research on immigrant settlement architecture.

However, overall, existing research has three major limitations: first, research objects are mostly focused on macro urban morphology and iconic landmark buildings [35], such as rarely focusing on the customs, beliefs, and living patterns embodied in residences, making it difficult to reconstruct the grassroots social landscape of the immigration localization process; second, although most research methods mention mixed research approaches, their methodological definition for studying cross-cultural integration in immigration localization remains vague, leading to low scientificity, replicability, and comparability of research results; third, existing research mostly focuses on the evolution of traditional residences in single-cultural settlements, with fewer studies on immigrant settlements in the context of cross-cultural integration and small sample sizes [36].

3. Research Methods

3.1. Technical Route

Addressing the core shortcomings of existing research in object focus, method definition, and sample selection, this study takes the traditional residences of the Ding clan as an example to construct a mixed research technical route: “Field Investigation—Framework Construction—Process typology analysis—Quantitative Analysis—Conclusion Output”. The overall research methods are divided into two categories: core methods and auxiliary methods. Relying on systematic research division of labor and technical pathways, the scientificity of the research process and the credibility of the results are ensured. Field investigations and data collection were conducted from March 2025 to January 2026, by a seven-member research team with hierarchical division of labor: five mid and young researchers were mainly responsible for practical work such as on-site sample statistics, field surveying and mapping, and data visualization of research results; and two senior experts oversaw the overall research plan, leading the team in systematic analysis and verification of research data and results based on the logic of mixed research methods, forming a closed-loop research implementation pathway (Figure 1).

The core method is the Spatiotemporal Biaxial Coordinate Classification Method, a key framework for analyzing the evolution of immigrant residence types. By constructing spatiotemporal biaxial classification standards, developing a standardized coding system, and establishing three quantitative verification indicators, it realizes the systematic classification, standardized identification, and scientific verification of traditional residence types. Other methods include statistical methods, field surveying and mapping methods, and Space Syntax methods, which serve as supporting tools for the core method—completing sample screening and statistics, spatial data collection, and quantitative analysis of spatial morphology respectively—to form a complementary and comprehensive research method system.

3.2. Core Method: Spatiotemporal Biaxial Coordinate Method

3.2.1. Spatiotemporal Biaxial Standards

Classification Standards Based on the Time Development Axis

Aligning with the three-stage evolutionary logic of immigration localization, and integrating documentary records such as the Genealogy of the Ding’s Hui Ethnic Group in Chendai and field verification results [6,7,8,37], this study deeply links the temporal evolution of traditional residence types with the localization process. It completes the division of basic architectural prototype classes corresponding to each stage, analyzes the driving effects of factors such as clan survival, cultural inheritance, and social interaction on type selection at each stage, and explains the adaptive logic of architectural types for the immigrant group during the localization process [38].

Typing Standards Based on Spatial Combination Modes

Based on the spatial expansion logic of Quanzhou’s local traditional residences [36,37,38,39,40], combined with field investigations and literature research, this study defines the localized expansion and spatial combination modes of the Ding clan’s traditional residences formed on the basis of architectural prototypes—taking these as classification criteria. It divides the most primitive parent type (Class A) and derived sub-types (collectively referred to as prototypes), and defines types formed by combining prototypes with local spatial combination modes as composite types, thereby constructing a “prototype + composite type” classification system.

3.2.2. Spatiotemporal Biaxial Encoding Method

Taking the four architectural prototype classes of the Ding clan in Chendai during the three stages of immigration localization as the temporal development axis, and the six local spatial combination modes of Quanzhou as the spatial combination axis, the two axes are cross-coupled to derive the number of theoretical typologies [41], and a standardized coding system is developed for all derived typologies. The coding follows the structure of “letter + symbol + number + letter”.

The first letter represents the basic architectural prototype (A, B, C, D); the symbol “+” indicates the addition of auxiliary rooms on the left and right sides of the prototype main body, and the symbol “–” indicates the addition of auxiliary rooms at the rear of the prototype main body; the number represents the quantity of added auxiliary rooms; since all auxiliary rooms adopt a three-sided enclosed courtyard form with the courtyard as the living unit [6,42], the last letter A is used to represent the added rooms. For example: A+2A, C–A, D–A+3A, etc. All typology codes, planar expansion drawings, and floor plans are drawn, typeset, and standardized using ZWCAD 2022 (Guangzhou Zhongwang Longteng Software Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, China), and uniformly exported in JPG format for subsequent analysis and archival storage.

In this process, some derived theoretical typologies are scarce in quantity, scattered in distribution, and lack representativeness across stages and regions. Even if coded, the reasons for their non-discovery or elimination can also reflect the typological evolution mechanism and will not have a negative impact on the qualitative conclusions of the research.

3.3. Verification Quantitative Indicators

Three quantitative indicators—evolutionary retention rate, type acceptance degree, and average connectivity—are established to verify the evolutionary laws of immigrant architectural types under the spatiotemporal biaxial coordinate classification system. These indicators reveal the inherent connection between types and the three stages of immigration localization, promoting the research from qualitative description to quantitative analysis. Complementing each other, the indicators enhance the scientificity and credibility of the research conclusions.

3.3.1. Evolutionary Retention Rate

This indicator measures the proportion of effectively retained types among theoretical types after elimination and screening during the immigration localization process. Calculated by comparing the theoretical type matrix constructed by the spatiotemporal biaxial coordinate classification method with the effective types identified through field investigations, it can accurately verify the screening effect of Quanzhou’s local construction logic and the living needs of the immigrant group on immigrant architectural types, and analyze the local adaptability and cultural selectivity of the evolution of immigrant architectural types [38]. The calculation formula is:

$$\mathrm{R}={\displaystyle \frac{{\mathrm{N}}_{\mathrm{v}}}{{\mathrm{N}}_{\mathrm{t}}}}\times 100\%$$

(1)

Symbol Explanation: R (evolutionary retention rate); ${\mathrm{N}}_{\mathrm{v}}$ (total number of effective architectural typologies); and ${\mathrm{N}}_{\mathrm{t}}$ (total number of theoretical architectural typologies).

3.3.2. Type Acceptance Degree

This indicator measures the actual distribution proportion of different architectural types among the research samples [36,37,38]. It can accurately reflect the type selection preferences of the immigrant group at different stages, verify the adaptability of the morphological characteristics of each type to the living conditions, economic level, living needs, and cultural characteristics of the immigrant group, and serves as the core quantitative basis for analyzing the driving mechanism of immigrant architectural type selection [39]. The calculation formula is:

$$\mathrm{A}={\displaystyle \frac{{\mathrm{N}}_{\mathrm{c}}}{{\mathrm{N}}_{\mathrm{s}}}}\times 100\%$$

(2)

Symbol Explanation: A (typology acceptance degree); ${\mathrm{N}}_{\mathrm{c}}$ (total number of samples of the specific typology); and ${\mathrm{N}}_{\mathrm{s}}$ (total number of effective typology samples).

3.3.3. Average Connectivity

This indicator measures the spatial accessibility and topological correlation of inside buildings (taking the core public spaces of traditional residential buildings as an example), and can indirectly reflect changes in spatial usage frequency, usage patterns, and ethnic settlement layout [35,39]. Quantitatively calculated via the built-in algorithm of Depthmap 10.14.00b software, it can analyze the spatial morphological evolution characteristics of architectural types at different localization stages, and acts as the core quantitative basis for interpreting the inherent mechanism of the spatial evolution of immigrant architecture. The calculation formula is:

$$\overline{\mathrm{C}}={\displaystyle \frac{{\sum }_{\mathrm{i}=1}^{\mathrm{n}}{\mathrm{C}}_{\mathrm{i}}}{\mathrm{n}}}$$

(3)

Symbol Explanation: $\overline{\mathrm{C}}$ (average connectivity); ${\mathrm{C}}_{\mathrm{i}}$ (connectivity of the i-th Step); and n (total number of Steps).

3.4. Auxiliary Methods

3.4.1. Statistical Method

Quantitative statistics are conducted on the traditional residences of the Ding clan with the “one bright hall and two dark rooms” layout from the Ming and Qing dynasties, providing basic data support for the sample analysis of the core method. The statistics cover seven regions: Huatingkou, Andou, Xiban, Pengtou, Sijing, Jiangtou, and Xibian [40]. The village affiliation of the research areas is determined by combining the residential group names marked on house numbers with literature [6]. Each traditional residence is uniformly numbered and filed, with basic information such as morphological characteristics, spatial layout, and architectural preservation status recorded. Meanwhile, documents such as the Genealogy of the Ding’s Hui Ethnic Group in Chendai are used to verify the construction age, usage function, and spatial layout of the residences, ensuring the traceability and accuracy of the statistical data. Preliminary sample screening is carried out based on the planar layout of traditional residences, excluding those with severely damaged layouts or obvious traces of modern renovation. For residences with damaged layouts and no documentary records, the original planar layout is restored by relying on architectural column networks and wall ruins and included in the research samples after verification [40]. Statistical analysis is conducted separately on the traditional residence types across the seven regions, recording the quantity and proportion of each type in each village. QGIS 3.16.1 (QGIS Association, Zurich, Switzerland) is used to visualize the statistical results into maps [6,7,8], and point data is imported into Origin 2022 (OriginLab Corporation, Northampton, MA, USA) for statistical analysis and visualization processing. This intuitively presents the sample screening process, delineates the effective research scope for quantitative statistics of type acceptance degree and type classification, and provides village-specific empirical data for exploring the impact of geographical location and family conditions on type selection. Due to objective factors such as building collapse and reconstruction, a small number of sample omissions or statistical errors may occur during the statistical process. These deviations do not affect the qualitative analysis of the research and can be ignored.

3.4.2. Field Surveying and Mapping Method

Combined with the statistical results of effective samples, field surveying and mapping are conducted on typical samples of effective types to collect accurate basic spatial data, providing data support for type coding, evolutionary retention rate analysis, and average connectivity calculation of the core method. Key parameters such as the planar topological layout, functional space boundaries, architectural roof form, and core dimensions of the types are focused on collecting, with key spatial topological relationships such as entrances, corridors, and courtyards prominently marked to ensure the accuracy of core spatial information. Basic data collection is completed through manual measurement combined with photographic records. Revit 2022 (Autodesk Inc., San Rafael, CA, USA) is used to draw manual measurement manuscripts and build 3D models [6,7,8], restoring information such as the planar layout, door and window positions, and roof form of traditional residences. After the models are built, the surveying and mapping results (e.g., floor plans of typical types, roof bird’s-eye views, axonometric drawings) are exported in DXF and JPG formats, providing accurate spatial data for subsequent research. During field surveying and mapping, slight errors in the detailed dimensions of some buildings may occur due to manual measurement operations. However, this study only focuses on the spatial topological relationships of the types and does not require precise architectural dimension data, so such slight errors do not affect the research conclusions.

3.4.3. Space Syntax Method

Core public spaces inside residences (entrances, corridors, courtyards, etc.) are selected as research objects, with average connectivity as the quantitative indicator to conduct quantitative analysis of spatial morphology, providing quantitative support for the core method to verify the inherent mechanism of the spatial evolution of immigrant architecture. Such public spaces are the core venues for collective activities of extended multi-branch families of the clan, which can directly reflect the spatial commonalities under the cohabitation mode of immigration localization. Changes in their connectivity and usage logic can directly reveal the core characteristics and inherent value of the evolutionary process of traditional types [6,7].

Private spaces (e.g., bedrooms, halls) and auxiliary rooms can reflect certain original Muslim customs, but their internal layouts have undergone significant changes over time. Moreover, the cohabitation of extended families with multiple branches in the clan has resulted in a complex context of diverse beliefs and living patterns, and not all private spaces can clearly reflect the integration process of original culture and localization. Therefore, they are not used as the research carrier for the commonalities of localization evolution and are excluded from the analysis. Relevant research topics will be further explored in subsequent in-depth studies.

The specific operation process is as follows: ZWCAD 2022 (Guangzhou Zhongwang Longteng Software Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, China) is used to preprocess the planar topological relationship diagrams of typical samples—removing door openings, correcting broken wall lines, and closing spatial boundaries to ensure the continuity and integrity of spatial outlines—before exporting in DXF format. The DXF files are imported into Depthmap 10.14.00b (Space Syntax Limited, London, UK) [25,26,27,28,29], and the “Run Visibility Graphic Analysis” function is selected under the Visibility directory with an analysis step size of 200 × 200 steps to generate spatial visualization connectivity diagrams. The software uses 1 × 1 step rasterized calculation units, and the built-in algorithm automatically calculates the connectivity of each step combined with spatial topological attributes, presenting connectivity values with differentiated color blocks (Section 5.3).

The target public space area is manually selected (by hovering the mouse for 1 s), and the software automatically calculates the average connectivity of the area [6]. After the data is entered into the statistical table, Origin 2022 software is used for visualization analysis, and ZWCAD 2022 software completes the standardization of chart typesetting. Since the same software and its built-in algorithm (Formula (3)) are used to calculate the average connectivity of all research samples, the average connectivity results are error-free when the same space is selected each time. However, most core public spaces are not separated by walls, resulting in blurred boundaries. Therefore, the only error stems from manual selection operations (usually controlled within 2–3%), which is negligible from a qualitative perspective and will not affect the qualitative comparison between types.

4. Research Object and Samples

4.1. Development History of the Ding Clan in Chendai Town

One of the descendants of Muslim immigrants who settled in Quanzhou during the Song and Yuan dynasties in China, influenced by the maritime spice route, is the Ding’s Hui ethnic group in Chendai Town. Their settlement is located in the coastal tidal flat area at the lower Jinjiang River estuary (present-day Chendai Town), featuring flat terrain and a dense water network. The research scope covers seven regions: Andou, Huatingkou, Xiban, Pengtou, Sijing, Jiangtou, and Xibian [43] (Figure 2 and Figure 3). After more than 800 years of dyke construction and land reclamation, clan reproduction, and immigration localization development, this area has formed a well-preserved traditional settlement and is one of the core settlements of Muslim immigrants’ descendants along China’s southeast coast from the Song–Yuan Dynasties [9,10]. Its development context exhibits clear phased characteristics aligned with the immigration localization process.

4.1.1. History of the Marginal Stage

In the early immigration phase (c. 1368–1385), due to differences in religious beliefs and physical characteristics from those of local ethnic groups, the clan was falsely accused of being White Lotus Sect followers and imprisoned. They faced not only suppression by the Ming government but also ostracism by neighboring communities. Forced to relocate from Huatingkou to Andou, the clan did not settle and multiply until the later years of the fourth generation after their release. During this stage, to preserve their cultural identity, the clan strictly adhered to core Muslim beliefs. The Genealogy of the Ding’s Hui ethnic group in Chendai clearly records the practice of “leading the clan in westward worship” and the strict preservation of traditional customs such as abstaining from pork and alcohol and performing five daily prayers [44,45]. The basic living form formed is five rooms in Andou at that time became the initial prototype (Class A) of the Ding clan’s residences in Chendai.

4.1.2. History of the Integration Stage

By the fifth to seventh generations (c. 1385–1565), the clan’s population grew rapidly, and they began to gradually expand their settlement scope to relatively remote areas including Xiban, Pengtou, and Jiangtou. During this development phase, the clan faced pirate invasions in the Ming Dynasty, which severely damaged the settlement [7]. When rebuilding their homes, constrained by the limited construction land on coastal tidal flats, the clan could only renovate their residences through simple expansions, successively forming the typology of adding corridor-style wing rooms on both sides of the main building (Class B) and adding front rooms in front of the main building (Class C) [7,8]. Although these forms initially met the living needs of extended families with multiple branches, the built residences all featured chaotic construction of space characteristics [6]. The residential renovation during this stage marked the clan’s initial attempt to adapt its architectural forms to local Quanzhou traditions.

4.1.3. History of the Fusion Stage

Three generations of Jinshi (top scholars in imperial examinations) emerged successively in the seventh to ninth generations of the Ding clan (c. 1565–1912), ushering in a new stage of clan development. Starting from the seventh generation, the ancestral residence was renovated into the Ding Clan Grand Ancestral Hall, finally completed through the joint efforts of three generations of clan members. The new ancestral hall adopted the form of a Quanzhou red brick residence (Class D) and for the first time featured a north–south orientation facing Baogai Mountain, integrating the local Quanzhou geomantic concept of praying for blessings and warding off disasters. This marked the clan’s gradual acceptance and integration of local geomantic beliefs and ancestor worship culture, moving beyond strict adherence to original Muslim beliefs [14]. After the lifting of the maritime ban in the early Qing Dynasty, the Ding’s Hui ethnic group in Chendai rebuilt their homes and carried out unified planning. Since then, the Ding clan widely adopted Class D residences, and the settlement continued to expand on this basis [7]. In this process, a small number of clan members still used the simple construction methods of the mid-Ming Dynasty to build a small number of Class B and C residences, but the vast majority of residences adopted Class D red brick residences [7]. Forming a scale of tens of thousands of people by the mid-Qing Dynasty [42,43].

4.2. Traditional Residential Prototypes and Their Combined Types

The traditional residences of the Ding’s Hui ethnic group in Chendai Town have gradually evolved into four core prototypes: Class A, Class B, Class C, and Class D. The morphological characteristics, spatial layout, and functional configuration of each prototype are highly consistent with the clan’s immigration localization process through the marginal, integration, and fusion stages. Their evolutionary trajectory is fully verifiable in combination with records in the Genealogy of the Ding’s Hui ethnic group in Chendai (Figure 4) and existing physical remains. Specific information is as follows.

4.2.1. Class A

Class A is the basic form of a three-sided enclosed courtyard, adapted to the initial prototype of the immigration localization marginal stage. In the early immigration phase, construction land in the coastal tidal flat area (present-day Chendai Town) was extremely limited, and the clan needed to adhere to the core Muslim custom of westward worship. Therefore, a compact five-bay layout was adopted—space is arranged in a straight line along the central axis including the entrance, central courtyard, and main hall, with bedrooms on both sides and wing rooms adjacent to the courtyard as auxiliary living spaces, maximizing the use of limited land. The uniform westward orientation of the residences not only meets religious needs but also forms a closed settlement form distinctly different from surrounding Han villages [44].

4.2.2. Class B

Class B is a three-sided enclosed courtyard form with corridor-style wing rooms added on both sides of the Class A main building, serving as the core evolutionary typology of the integration stage. With the clan’s population growth, the original living space of Class A could no longer meet the needs of extended families with multiple branches. At the same time, the clan began to imitate the layout logic of local Quanzhou Class D residences and carried out simple expansions on the basis of Class A. By adding corridor-style wing rooms on both sides of the main body and expanding the main hall, spatial capacity was significantly increased; constrained by the layout of surrounding buildings, the entrance was adjusted to the side [6]. Core functions still included living, reception, and worship, not only continuing the core characteristics of Class A but also adapting to living needs through partial transformation. It is a product of the dual pressures of population growth and imitation of local architecture [45].

4.2.3. Class C

Class C is a courtyard form with a front room added in front of the Class A main building, serving as another important evolutionary typology of the integration stage. Affected by the living space pressure from population growth and learning from the courtyard layout concept of local Quanzhou Class D residences, the clan added a front room in front of Class A to form a more complete courtyard space [6]. Constrained by both limited construction land and the custom of westward worship, the entrance retained the side layout to avoid spatial conflicts. Functionally, it realized the orderly cohabitation of extended families with multiple branches through clear zoning, not only preserving the core marks of immigrant culture but also deeply absorbing local architectural layout logic, becoming a key transitional form connecting Class A and Class D [45].

4.2.4. Class D

Class D is the mainstream courtyard form of local Quanzhou red brick residences, serving as the core residential prototype of the fusion stage. With the advancement of dyke construction and land reclamation in Chendai Town, tidal flats were converted into regular construction land, and the clan’s economic strength improved significantly. At this time, the advantages of local Quanzhou red brick residences were fully realized and comprehensively introduced into the clan’s living forms in the late Ming Dynasty. Its form draws on the courtyard layout of Class C, but with sufficient construction land, the entrance was moved to the front [6]; some typologies were adjusted to a north–south orientation facing Baogai Mountain in accordance with local geomantic concepts, which not only embodies local cultural implications but also improves lighting and ventilation conditions [22]. Functionally, a dedicated ancestor worship space was set up, and the architectural form was highly adapted to local Quanzhou building logic, marking the clan’s deep integration into local society and serving as a material carrier of the in-depth integration of immigrant and local cultures [14].

Based on the four prototypes (Class A, B, C, D), the traditional residences of the Ding clan form a variety of spatially expanded composite types by adding auxiliary rooms (Figure 5). Their expansion logic is shaped by three factors: ethnic customs, settlement form, and local Quanzhou architectural traditions [6,7,8]. Records in the Genealogy of the Ding’s Hui ethnic group in Chendai such as “purchasing auxiliary rooms on the left and right” and “adding rear houses” [7,8] are mutually confirmed with the six core local spatial combination modes of Quanzhou, verifying the in-depth integration of the local combination system. Field research has confirmed that Class A and D can realize bilateral or rear expansion due to their front entrance layout, while Class B and C can only realize unilateral expansion due to their side entrance layout, forming differentiated expansion characteristics. The auxiliary rooms of all expanded composite types have diverse functions, including cooking, storage, and auxiliary living, accurately adapting to the living needs of immigrants with extended family cohabitation, diverse living habits, and diverse beliefs [6].

4.3. Sampling Basis

From 274 traditional residences of the Ding clan with the “one bright hall and two dark rooms” layout, strict screening was conducted—excluding 89 buildings with severe damage, incomplete forms, or obvious traces of modern renovation—ultimately determining 185 valid research samples with an effective sample rate of 67.88% (Figure 6,

Table 1. Statistics on the Preservation of Traditional Residential Types. Source: Through field research.

No.	Type	Quantity	Proportion
1	Changes in residence Layout	88	32.12
2	Maintain the original Layout	185	67.88
Total		274	100.00

Note: Proportions are expressed as percentages (%).

). To ensure the scientificity and reliability of the research, sample selection strictly follows three core principles:

(1)

Authenticity Principle: All samples are traditional residences originally built during the Ming and Qing dynasties, and the core spatial characteristics carrying the immigration localization process have not undergone essential changes due to human transformation. For residences with damaged layouts and no documentary records, the original planar layout must be restored and verified through architectural column networks and wall ruins before being included in the sample library.

(2)

Completeness Principle: Samples must retain complete spatial topological relationships, with no missing core public spaces (entrances, corridors, courtyards, etc.) or basic functional spaces, which can support the basic data needs of process typology analysis and Space Syntax quantitative calculation, ensuring the effective implementation of various research methods.

(3)

Representativeness Principle: Samples cover all types of the three stages of immigration localization (marginal, integration, fusion), including four basic prototypes and various derived composite types; meanwhile, they take into account the uniform distribution across the seven regions such as Huatingkou and Andou, avoiding research deviations caused by an excessively high proportion of samples from a single village [3].

5. Results: Analysis of Architectural Type Evolution

5.1. Results of Evolutionary Retention Rate

Based on the “4 prototypes × 6 local spatial combinations” matrix constructed by the spatiotemporal biaxial coordinate classification method, 24 theoretical typologies were derived. After village-by-village field verification, sample screening, and cross-validation of data across seven regions, 15 valid typologies were ultimately identified and confirmed (Figure 7, Figure A1 and Figure A2,

Table A1. Sample Information Statistics Table. Source: Statistically organized based on field research conducted by the first and third authors of this article.

No.	Type	Region	Room Number	Space Function
1	A	Huatingkou	No. 83 Wuyi Road	1 entrance courtyard, 4 rooms, 1 hall, 1 back hall Room (rear veranda room), 1 entrance, 1 courtyard
2	B	Huatingkou	No. 18 Wuyi Road	5 rooms, 1 hall, 1 back hall Room, 1 entrance, 1 courtyard
3	C	Pengtou	No. 107 Fenjiang East Road	6 rooms, 2 halls, 1 back hall Room, 1 entrance, 1 courtyard
4	D	Jiangtou	No. 1 Dongmei Road	1 entrance courtyard, 6 rooms, 2 halls, 1 back hall Room, 1 entrance, 1 courtyard
5	A+1A	Andou	No. 10 Guanyin Lane	1 entrance courtyard, 6 rooms, 1 hall, 1 back hall Room, 1 entrance, 2 courtyards
6	B+2A	Pengtou	No. 118 Fenjiang East Road	8 rooms, 1 hall, 1 back hall Room, 1 entrance, 3 courtyards
7	C+2A	Andou	No. 105 Guanyin Lane	9 rooms, 2 halls, 1 back hall Room, 1 entrance, 3 courtyards
8	D+2A	Huatingkou	No. 181-1 Wuyi Road	1 entrance courtyard, 9 rooms, 2 halls, 1 back hall Room, 2 entrances, 3 courtyards
9	A+2A	Xibian Village	No. 248 Huaixiang Road	1 entrance courtyard, 8 rooms, 1 hall, 1 back hall Room, 2 entrances, 3 courtyards
10	D+4A	Pengtou	No. 89 Fenjiang East Road	1 entrance courtyard, 11 rooms, 2 halls, 1 back hall Room, 3 entrances, 5 courtyards
11	C–A	Xiban	No. 35 Jinzhong Road	10 rooms, 3 halls, 1 back hall Room, 1 entrance, 2 courtyards
12	D–A	Sijing	No. 108 Chendai Street	1 entrance courtyard, 10 rooms, 3 halls, 1 back hall Room, 1 entrance, 2 courtyards
13	C–A+3A	Andou	No. 23 Guanyin Lane	14 rooms, 3 halls, 1 back hall Room, 2 entrances, 5 courtyards
14	D–A+3A	Pengtou	No. 90 Fenjiang East Road	1 entrance courtyard, 14 rooms, 3 halls, 1 back hall Room, 2 entrances, 5 courtyards
15	D–A+6A	Andou	No. 73 Guanyin Lane	1 entrance courtyard, 18 rooms, 3 halls, 1 back hall Room, 3 entrances, 8 courtyards

). The formed “prototype-combined type” evolutionary chain intuitively reflects the adaptive screening mechanism of typologies in response to Quanzhou’s local environment, living needs, and cultural logic.

The 15 valid typologies are highly compatible with the three stages of immigration localization, with their core characteristics and distribution patterns as follows (Table A1): Class A, a basic typology of the early Ming Dynasty, adopts a compact three-sided enclosed courtyard layout. It not only adapted to the limited construction land on coastal tidal flats at that time but also retained the core spatial layout for Muslim westward worship [6,7,8], making it a key choice for the clan to balance survival needs and religious customs during the initial migration period. Classes B and C are transitional typologies from the mid Ming Dynasty. Driven by the clan’s continuous population growth and increasingly scarce construction land, spatial expansion was achieved through partial extensions based on Class A, while imitating the layout logic of local Class D, forming a transitional form of “original characteristics + local adaptation” [46,47,48]. Class D, a mainstream local typology introduced in the late Ming Dynasty, features a regular courtyard layout centered on “front house + main building,” which is highly consistent with local geomantic concepts [49]. Its spatial pattern not only meets the living needs of extended multi-branch families but also adapts to Quanzhou’s local climate and architectural traditions. By combining the four prototypes with six local spatial combinations, they can match the diverse living needs and cultural adaptability requirements of the marginal, integration, and fusion stages [6].

In addition, nine theoretical typologies were eliminated due to adaptability defects, with three reasons clearly corresponding to the relevant typologies: First, the facade forms of Classes A and B do not conform to the conventional aesthetic of Quanzhou’s “one bright hall and two dark rooms + recessed entrance,” conflicting with the visual characteristics of local residences. Consequently, their combined types with auxiliary rooms added at the rear (e.g., A–A+4A, B–A+6A) were not found in the field. Second, the side entrance layout of Classes B and C limits spatial expansion potential—bilateral expansion is not feasible due to layout constraints, and only unilateral expansion can be achieved. Thus, combined types based on bilateral expansion logic (e.g., B+4A, C+4A) were eliminated [6]. Third, Classes A, B, and C were mostly chosen by families with ordinary economic conditions. As the clan’s economic strength and construction land conditions improved, clan members demolished the original typologies and rebuilt Class D and its derived types with stronger adaptability [6]. Therefore, some combined types of Classes A/B/C with limited expansion potential were gradually replaced by Class D.

5.2. Results of Type Acceptance Degree

Based on village-by-village statistical data of 185 effective samples (Figure 8, Figure 9 and Figure A2,

Table 2. Statistical Table of the Quantity and Proportion of Four Classes of Traditional Residences. Source: Conducted through field research, marked with QGIS 3.16.1 (QGIS Association, Zurich, Switzerland), and then statistically tabulated.

Village	Proportion of Class A	Proportion of Class B	Proportion of Class C	Proportion of Class D
Huatingkou	25.00	11.11	13.89	50.00
Andou	19.57	0.00	19.57	60.87
Xiban	33.33	0.00	16.67	50.00
Pengtou	11.76	17.65	5.88	64.71
Sijing	24.00	0.00	8.00	68.00
Jiangtou	37.93	6.90	3.45	51.72
Xibian	45.00	10.00	5.00	40.00
Total	27.03	5.95	11.35	55.68

Note: Proportions are expressed as percentages (%).

and

Table A2. Statistical Table of the Number and Proportion of 185 Traditional Residential Houses by Village Type. Source: Conducted through field research, marked with QGIS 3.16.1 (QGIS Association, Zurich, Switzerland), and then statistically tabulated.

Type	Huatingkou	Andou	Xiban	Pengtou	Sijing	Jiangtou	Xibian	Total	Proportion
A	7	7	4	1	3	6	8	36	19.46
B	3	0	0	2	0	2	2	9	4.86
C	3	0	1	1	1	1	1	8	4.32
D	10	9	1	4	3	10	5	42	22.70
A+1A	2	1	0	1	0	5	0	9	4.86
B+2A	1	0	0	1	0	0	0	2	1.08
C+2A	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	1	0.54
D+2A	2	2	0	1	1	2	2	10	5.41
A+2A	0	1	0	0	3	0	1	5	2.70
D+4A	0	0	1	3	2	1	1	8	4.32
C–A	0	6	1	0	0	0	0	7	3.78
D–A	4	9	3	1	2	1	0	20	10.81
C–A+3A	2	2	0	0	1	0	0	5	2.72
D–A+3A	0	3	0	2	1	1	0	7	3.78
D–A+6A	2	5	1	0	8	1	0	17	9.19
Total	36	46	12	17	25	29	20	185	100

Note: Proportions are expressed as percentages (%).

), typology acceptance exhibits distinct characteristics: Class A as the foundation, Class D as the mainstream, and Class B/C as the transition. This characteristic is jointly shaped by construction land conditions, family economic strength, and local cultural concepts, clearly showing the adaptive differences of different typologies in the localization process and confirming the clan’s extensive preference for Class D after the late Ming Dynasty. The specific proportion and village distribution data of each typology are as follows (Table 2 and Table A2, Figure A2).

Class A accounts for 27.03%. As a basic typology adapted to the scarce coastal tidal flat construction land in the early Ming Dynasty, although it was no longer the optimal choice after the Ming Dynasty, it still maintains a high proportion in relatively marginal villages such as Xibian (45%) and Jiangtou (37.93%)—these villages had lagging economic development during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and the cost of acquiring construction land was high. Some families could only continue to retain Class A due to limited economic conditions or restricted reconstruction, making it a necessary choice under resource constraints; even central villages such as Huatingkou (25%) and Xiban (33.33%), with superior geographical locations, retain a certain proportion of Class A due to crowded land plots and harsh reconstruction conditions, confirming its resilience as a basic typology.

Class D accounts for 55.68%, becoming the absolute mainstream and highlighting its in-depth localization characteristics: Sijing Village, planned and constructed in the late Qing Dynasty with regular construction land, ranks first with a proportion of 68%, followed by central villages such as Pengtou (64.71%) and Andou (60.87%); even in remote Jiangtou (51.72%) and Xibian (40%), the proportion of Class D remains high. This high cross-regional acceptance not only reflects the clan’s general preference for Class D after the late Ming Dynasty but also indicates that the regularly laid out Class D is more easily promoted in planned construction areas. Its regular pattern, adaptability to local geomancy, and excellent usability make it the core choice of the clan [49].

Class B and C account for only 17.24% in total, with Class B at 5.95% and Class C at 11.35%. As transitional typologies from Class A to D, the small quantity is mainly due to morphological adaptation defects: the main facade of Class B does not conform to the conventional aesthetic of local residences, with poor visual effects; both Class B and C adopt a side entrance layout, which can neither realize bilateral expansion to meet population growth needs nor form a regular main facade, resulting in far lower adaptability than Class D [6]; from the perspective of village distribution, the two are only scattered in villages such as Pengtou, Huatingkou, and Xibian, and Class B is almost not distributed in villages with crowded land plots or regular planning such as Andou, Xiban, and Sijing (Figure 9), fully confirming the inherent limitations of transitional typologies and the rational selection preferences of the clan.

5.3. Results of Average Connectivity

Based on the built-in connectivity algorithm of Depthmap 10.14.00b software [27], the average connectivity of core public spaces (including entrance, corridor, central courtyard, side courtyard, and rear courtyard) of typical samples of 15 valid typologies was calculated. The obtained data (

Table 3. Statistical Table of Average Connectivity of Public Spaces in Various Types of Traditional Residential Buildings. Source: Calculated and visualized using Depthmap 10.14.00b (Space Syntax Limited, London, UK); the average connectivity was obtained by selecting the target area with the mouse and holding it for 2 s, then recorded in the table. Detailed visualization information of each space’s average connectivity is shown in Appendix B Figure A2.

No.	Encoded	Entrance	Corridor	Central Courtyard	Side Courtyard	Rear Courtyard
1	A	4449.55	2146.36	3190.68	0.00	0.00
2	B	3193.70	2563.55	4350.34	0.00	0.00
3	C	2192.38	2796.19	3983.02	0.00	0.00
4	D	1793.11	1305.59	1904.54	0.00	0.00
5	A+1A	4898.33	2269.72	3228.69	894.36	0.00
6	B+2A	3316.83	2652.31	4378.42	793.32	0.00
7	C+2A	2305.64	3820.03	4544.45	1574.54	0.00
8	D+2A	3383.63	2908.82	4004.46	977.33	0.00
9	A+2A	5613.77	2422.15	3237.24	943.06	0.00
10	D+4A	3463.75	2975.83	4041.47	941.41	0.00
11	C–A	993.35	1150.88	1812.32	0.00	1128.21
12	D–A	1024.42	680.83	1084.52	0.00	629.12
13	C–A+3A	1003.95	1153.66	1793.28	408.59	1131.91
14	D–A+3A	1156.90	703.25	1129.60	242.78	658.24
15	D–A+6A	1122.65	699.57	1084.52	230.52	650.06

Note: The average connectivity threshold color distribution is as follows: 0.00–1085.70 (dark blue, lowest connectivity); 1085.70–1409.60 (blue, lower connectivity); 1409.60–1733.50 (sky blue, slightly lower connectivity); 1733.50–2057.40 (green, medium connectivity); 2057.40–2381.30 (yellowish green, slightly higher connectivity); 2381.30–2705.20 (yellow, higher connectivity); 2705.20–3029.10 (orange, extremely high connectivity); >3029.10 (red, highest connectivity).

, Figure 10 and Figure A3) constitute the core dataset of the three quantitative indicator systems—“evolutionary retention rate–typology acceptance degree–average connectivity”. These not only confirm the extended multi-branch family cohabitation mode of the Ding clan in Chendai Town but also intuitively reflect the in-depth integration of local Quanzhou architectural concepts [6].

Differences in connectivity between the central courtyard and other core spaces clearly highlight the spatial logic of the cohabitation mode [6]: the connectivity of the Class A central courtyard is 3190.68, which slightly rises to 3228.69 after adding a side courtyard (Type A+1A). This slight numerical fluctuation confirms that the central courtyard has always been the core carrier of the family’s public activities, unaffected by the addition of auxiliary spaces. The corridor connectivity of fusion stage typologies such as Type D–A and Type D–A+3A is significantly lower than that of the entrance and central courtyard (Figure 11). Among them, the corridor connectivity of Type D–A is only 680.83 [50,51,52], reflecting the Ding clan’s evolutionary trajectory from “single-family living” to “standardized cohabitation with substantive division”. This aligns with the need for living independence under the premise of extended family cohabitation, balancing collective life and individual privacy (Figure 12).

Changes in connectivity between the central courtyard and the rear courtyard/entrance directly confirm the integration process of local architectural concepts [21]: the connectivity of the Class D central courtyard is 1904.54, which drops to 1084.52 after adding a rear courtyard (Type D–A), a decrease of 43.06%. All typologies with added rear courtyards follow this law, indicating that the rear courtyard effectively diverts some functions of the central courtyard, making the building’s spatial layout more in line with Quanzhou’s local preference for “deep courtyard residences” [52,53] (Figure 11). From Class A to D, entrance connectivity shows a continuous downward trend (Class A: 4449.55, Class D: 1793.11), promoting the transfer of the core of public activities from the entrance to the central courtyard. This intuitively reflects the improvement of living space openness and the Ding clan’s deep integration into local Quanzhou society (Figure 12).

6. Discussion: Architectural Evolution Characteristics and Practical Application

6.1. Double Standard Dimensional Protection Principle Under Nonlinear Evolution Characteristics

The nonlinear evolution characteristics of the Ding clan’s traditional residences are centered on the dual logic of phased adaptation with the time axis and flexible combination with the spatial axis. Its scientificity is highly consistent with the immigration localization process, breaking the inherent cognition of linear evolution of traditional architectural types [14], and it is also a direct material manifestation of the immigration localization process in the material space dimension, providing a new quantitative analysis perspective for the evolution research of cross-cultural immigrant architecture. This characteristic is reflected in two major dimensions: In the time dimension, the four types of residence prototypes are highly corresponding to the three stages of localization, and the type selection at each stage is accurately adapted to the survival and cultural needs of the time [6,7,8]; in the spatial dimension, among the 24 theoretical types derived from the four prototypes and six local spatial combinations, 9 types are eliminated due to adaptability defects, and 15 effective types can be dynamically adjusted according to the land use conditions of each village [7,49], showing flexible spatial evolution characteristics.

Based on the nonlinear evolution characteristics of Ding clan’s traditional dwellings, their protection needs to follow the principle of spatiotemporal double standard dimension. In the time dimension, strictly retain the core spatial characteristics of residences at different localization stages, clarify the protection level and priority of types at each stage, and accurately correspond to the historical trajectory of immigration localization; in the spatial dimension, respect the flexibility of Quanzhou’s six local spatial combinations, focus on protecting the spatial diversity of transitional types (Class B and C), define the scope of illegal construction based on the type evolution mechanism of this study [54], put an end to destructive renovation projects, and ensure the integrity and authenticity of the spatial evolution characteristics of residences.

6.2. Integrated and Diversified Fusion Characteristics and Multicultural Preservation Principle

The integrated and diversified fusion characteristics of the Ding clan’s traditional residences are centered on the in-depth integration of immigrant origin culture and Quanzhou’s local culture, focusing on two dimensions: the custom of cohabitation of extended multi-branch families and the compatibility and coexistence of multiple beliefs [3]. It is a typical material carrier of the localization process of the descendants of Muslim immigrants in Quanzhou during the Song–Yuan dynasties, providing a core reference for the protection of architectural heritage with multicultural integration. The material manifestation of this characteristic is clearly visible: in terms of living customs, from the multi-household cohabitation of early Class B and C to the later layout of “central courtyard as the core, surrounded by auxiliary courtyards” formed by various types, the average connectivity data confirms the characteristic of reduced corridor connectivity between branches [51,52], achieving a balance between collective cohabitation and small-family living independence; in terms of beliefs, the clan not only adheres to the core tradition of Muslim westward worship but also integrates Quanzhou’s local ancestor worship customs. A small number of Class D residences still retain the core religious space facing west despite adjusting their overall orientation in accordance with local geomancy [7], forming distinct characteristics of multi-belief compatibility.

Targeting the integrated and diversified fusion characteristics, the protection of architectural heritage needs to adhere to the principle of multicultural preservation. On the one hand, retain the spatial layout of “central courtyard as the core, surrounded by auxiliary courtyards” [53,54], do not arbitrarily merge courtyards or destroy the topological relationship of corridor spaces, and maintain the cultural form of cohabitation of extended multi-branch families; on the other hand, focus on protecting the core cultural symbol of the westward main hall [55], retain its dual functions of Muslim worship and local ancestor worship, put an end to material traces that damage multicultural integration, and ensure the complete inheritance of the integration characteristics of immigrant culture and local culture.

6.3. Spatial Constraint Characteristics and Identifiability Preservation Principle

The spatial constraint characteristics of the Ding clan’s traditional residences are centered on a series of “functionally inconvenient” spatial traits caused by the limited construction land on coastal tidal flats. They are the core material traces of the localization development and evolution of the Ding clan [6,7,8], as well as a unique identifier distinguishing it from other settlements. Its cultural value is far higher than its practical value, serving as a key basis for studying the spatial adaptation of immigration localization. This characteristic is mainly reflected in three core spatial traits: First, the compact three-sided enclosed courtyard layout of Class A, which adapts to the early status of scarce construction land, is retained in all villages, recording the initial survival and adaptation state of the clan; second, the side entrance form of Class B and C, which can only be simply expanded due to the constraint of construction land in the middle period, is a key material manifestation of the transitional stage of localization despite its limited spatial expandability [6]; third, the common “multi-courtyard” spatial pattern of all types—even the regular layout of Class D forms the characteristic of low corridor connectivity due to adapting to multi-branch cohabitation [50,51,52], which is an inevitable choice to balance living needs under limited land use, and this characteristic is fully verified by three sets of quantitative indicator data.

Based on the spatial constraint characteristics and the “cultural value first” principle, the protection and renewal of the Ding clan’s traditional residences need to follow the principle of identifiability preservation. On the one hand, strictly retain core spatial characteristics such as compact three-sided enclosed courtyards, side entrances, and multi-courtyards [54,55], do not arbitrarily demolish or renovate such spatial characteristics, and completely retain the material traces of spatial constraints during the localization process; on the other hand, under the premise of fully protecting cultural symbols, targeted optimization of modern usage functions such as lighting, ventilation, and internal circulation [56,57] should be carried out, realizing the organic unity of architectural heritage cultural protection and practical value improvement through partial renovation and avoiding the idleness or destructive renovation of residences caused by functional lag.

7. Conclusions

Taking 185 traditional residences with the “one bright hall and two dark rooms” layout of the Ding clan in Chendai Town across seven regions as the research object, this study systematically reveals the evolutionary laws and protection strategies of the traditional residences of Muslim immigrant descendants in Quanzhou during the Song–Yuan Dynasties by integrating the three-stage theory of immigration localization and architectural process typology and adopting multi-disciplinary comprehensive research methods. The core conclusions are as follows:

(1)

Among the 24 theoretical types derived from the “4 × 6” matrix, 15 valid types have formed a “prototype-combined type” evolutionary chain; 9 theoretical types were eliminated due to facade aesthetic conflicts, expansion limitations, and replacement after improved economic conditions.

(2)

Class A serves as the foundation during the immigrant marginal stage, adapting to the scarce land situation, and is still retained in marginal villages and central villages with crowded land plots; Class D is the core of in-depth localization during the fusion stage, becoming the mainstream due to its regular layout, adaptation to local geomancy, and excellent use experience—reflecting the Ding clan’s preference for it after the late Ming Dynasty; and Class B and Class C have a low quantity and scattered distribution due to morphological defects and weak adaptability.

(3)

Significant differences in average connectivity between the central courtyard and other core public spaces confirm the characteristic of extended multi-branch family cohabitation with independent living spaces, reflecting the integrated and diversified fusion of this traditional residence and the integration of local Quanzhou architectural concepts.

Key findings: The research results of the above mutually confirm and support each other, collectively revealing three evolutionary characteristics of the traditional residences in Chendai Town, nonlinear evolution, integrated and diversified fusion, and spatial constraint, and strategies have been proposed, such as dual-standard dimensional protection, multicultural preservation, and identifiability retention, clarifying the inherent mechanism and protection logic of immigrant architecture localization.

Innovations: Taking architectural materials as the carrier, this study constructs the spatiotemporal biaxial coordinate classification method to systematically analyze the inherent mechanism of immigrant culture and the localization of its traditional residences; establishes verification standards and indicators; and reversely verifies the scientificity of type evolution through statistical data—providing a scientific reference for the protection and renewal of architectural heritage in Hui ethnic settlements and similar immigrant communities along China’s southeast coast.

8. Limitations and Prospects

While the study clarifies the evolutionary characteristics and practical strategies of the traditional residences of the Ding clan in Chendai Town, providing references for research on architectural heritage of immigrant settlements, it still has limitations in research dimensions and scope which can be supplemented and deepened in the following aspects:

(1)

No comparative research has been conducted on other similar Muslim immigrant settlements along the southeast coast of China (e.g., Baiqi in Hui’an, Shihu in Shishi). In the future, relying on the existing analytical framework and quantitative indicators, the research scope can be expanded to conduct comparative analysis across multiple settlements, exploring the comprehensive impact of multiple factors on the localization of immigrant architecture and extracting common laws and regional characteristics.

(2)

The analysis only focuses on refugee immigrant settlements, without involving research on other types of immigrant settlements such as commercial and colonial immigrants worldwide. In the future, typical cases can be selected for cross-national and cross-regional comparisons to clarify the impact of immigrant type differences on architectural form, spatial combination, and cultural integration, deepening the interaction mechanism between immigration localization and architectural process typology.

(3)

No research has been carried out on the 9 uncounted theoretical architectural types. Although these types are small in quantity and weak in representativeness, if physical remains are found in the future, targeted case studies can be conducted to explore the in-depth mechanisms of immigration localization behind them and their inherent connection with architectural process typology, enriching research dimensions.

(4)

The current research focuses on public spaces and has not thoroughly explored the diversified private spaces in the process of immigration localization. In the future, research can be conducted on the spatial types and usage patterns of private spaces such as bedrooms and halls, exploring information on cultural adaptation and changes in living habits to improve the research on the generation mechanism of immigration localization.