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Volume 15
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10.3390/buildings15234344
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Article

Comprehensive Performance Evaluation of C Class Fly Ash Stability and Activity Index Based on Projection Pursuit Regression

by
Xiangzhi Kong
1,
Miaomiao Gong
2,*,
Mingshan Chen
3,
Jingwei Gong
2,
Liting Jia
2,
Liqun Yang
2 and
Yiyi Wang
2
1
State Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Water Security, Beijing 100038, China
2
Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Hydraulic Engineering Security and Water Disasters Prevention, College of Hydraulic and Civil Engineering, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China
3
Xinjiang Water Resources Development and Construction Group Co., Ltd., Urumqi 830000, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Buildings 2025, 15(23), 4344; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15234344
Submission received: 8 October 2025 / Revised: 7 November 2025 / Accepted: 19 November 2025 / Published: 28 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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Abstract

To better evaluate the comprehensive performance of Class C fly ash (FA) in terms of soundness and mechanical strength for engineering applications, this study analyzes the effects of CaO and free-CaO (f-CaO) on the strength activity index and soundness of FA. A prediction model for FA strength and soundness is established based on the projection pursuit regression (PPR) method. Through simulation calculations, contour maps of comprehensive performance are drawn, transforming the multi-objective performance optimization problem into single-objective optimization problems of mechanical strength and soundness. The model directly determines the strength activity and soundness of fly ash under different CaO and f-CaO contents. The results indicate that when the f-CaO content does not exceed 4.82%, increasing the CaO content can both ensure the soundness of FA and improve its strength activity index. This study provides guidance for the application of Class C FA in concrete engineering.
Keywords: Class C fly ash; stability; activity; projection pursuit regression; comprehensive performance evaluation Class C fly ash; stability; activity; projection pursuit regression; comprehensive performance evaluation

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MDPI and ACS Style

Kong, X.; Gong, M.; Chen, M.; Gong, J.; Jia, L.; Yang, L.; Wang, Y. Comprehensive Performance Evaluation of C Class Fly Ash Stability and Activity Index Based on Projection Pursuit Regression. Buildings 2025, 15, 4344. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15234344

AMA Style

Kong X, Gong M, Chen M, Gong J, Jia L, Yang L, Wang Y. Comprehensive Performance Evaluation of C Class Fly Ash Stability and Activity Index Based on Projection Pursuit Regression. Buildings. 2025; 15(23):4344. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15234344

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kong, Xiangzhi, Miaomiao Gong, Mingshan Chen, Jingwei Gong, Liting Jia, Liqun Yang, and Yiyi Wang. 2025. "Comprehensive Performance Evaluation of C Class Fly Ash Stability and Activity Index Based on Projection Pursuit Regression" Buildings 15, no. 23: 4344. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15234344

APA Style

Kong, X., Gong, M., Chen, M., Gong, J., Jia, L., Yang, L., & Wang, Y. (2025). Comprehensive Performance Evaluation of C Class Fly Ash Stability and Activity Index Based on Projection Pursuit Regression. Buildings, 15(23), 4344. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15234344

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