Formal and Informal Planning-Dominated Urban Village Development: A Comparative Study of Luojiazhuang and Yangjiapailou in Hangzhou, China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Debates of Formality–Informality: From Categories of Territory or Labor to Forms of Urban Practice
3. Study Area and Methods
3.1. Analytical Framework
3.2. Study Area
3.3. Data Collection and Methods
4. Comparative Case Studies
4.1. Overview of the Planning and Construction Processes of Two Urban Villages
4.2. Comparison of Urban Village Development
4.2.1. Rental Income of Local Villagers
4.2.2. Business Benefits of Shopkeepers
4.2.3. Residential Satisfaction of Tenants
- (1)
- Overall, respondents in Yangjiapailou were more satisfied with their living conditions than respondents in Luojiazhuang. Moreover, for both urban villages, respondents’ evaluation of the sense of security was relatively higher, and their evaluations of neighborhood interaction was relatively lower.
- (2)
- Young respondents (under 30) in Luojiazhuang, who make up the majority of the population, scored much lower, indicating that Luojiazhuang is in great need of enhancement of the matching degree between the living environment and the demands of young people. Moreover, the main group in Yangjiapailou, namely tenants under 30 years old, 31 to 40 years old, and above 50 years old, had relatively higher satisfaction evaluations, indicating that the living environment of Yangjiapailou is well-suited to the needs of most tenants.
- (3)
- The respondents living alone in Luojiazhuang scored relatively higher, while those living with family members (with husbands or wives, as well as with children and seniors) scored much lower. Moreover, the respondents living with family members in Luojiazhuang scored significantly lower than those in Yangjiapailou. This suggests that Luojiazhuang may be better suited to the tenants living alone, whereas Yangjiapailou may better satisfy the living demands of the tenants living with family members, including the elderly relatives and children.
4.3. Summary
5. Discussions
5.1. Influences of Formal and Informal Planning on Urban Village Development
5.2. A New Experience Exploring the Planning Approaches for Urban Villages in China: Combination of Ecological Protection, Cultural Inheritance, and Tourism Development Dominated by Informal Planning
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- He, S.; Liu, Y.; Webster, C.; Wu, F. Property Rights Redistribution, Entitlement Failure and the Impoverishment of Landless Farmers in China. Urban Stud. 2009, 46, 1925–1949. [Google Scholar]
- Hao, P.; Geertman, S.; Hooimeijer, P.; Sliuzas, R. Spatial Analyses of the Urban Village Development Process in Shenzhen, China. Int. J. Urban Reg. Res. 2013, 37, 2177–2197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, Y.; He, S.; Wu, F.; Webster, C. Urban Villages under China’s Rapid Urbanization: Unregulated Assets and Transitional Neighbourhoods. Habitat Int. 2010, 34, 135–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Y.P.; Wang, Y.; Wu, J. Urbanization and Informal Development in China: Urban Villages in Shenzhen. Int. J. Urban Reg. Res. 2009, 33, 957–973. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, L.; Zhao, S.X.B.; Tian, J.P. Self-help in Housing and Chengzhongcun in China’s Urbanization. Int. J. Urban Reg. Res. 2003, 27, 912–937. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hao, P.; Sliuzas, R.; Geertman, S. The Development and Redevelopment of Urban Villages in Shenzhen. Habitat Int. 2011, 35, 214–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- He, S.; Liu, Y.; Wu, F.; Webster, C. Social Groups and Housing Differentiation in China’s Urban Villages: An Institutional Interpretation. Hous. Stud. 2010, 25, 671–691. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wong, S.W.; Tang, B.-S.; Liu, J. Village Redevelopment and Desegregation as a Strategy for Metropolitan Development: Some Lessons from Guangzhou City. Int. J. Urban Reg. Res. 2018, 42, 1064–1079. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lin, Y.; De Meulder, B. A Conceptual Framework for the Strategic Urban Project Approach for the Sustainable Redevelopment of “Villages in the City” in Guangzhou. Habitat Int. 2012, 36, 380–387. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wu, F.; Zhang, F.; Webster, C. Informality and the Development and Demolition of Urban Villages in the Chinese Peri-Urban Area. Urban Stud. 2013, 50, 1919–1934. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shen, J.; Feng, Z.; Wong, K.-Y. Dual-Track Urbanization in a Transitional Economy: The Case of Pearl River Delta in South China. Habitat Int. 2006, 30, 690–705. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, J. The Real Issues of Urban Villages. China Open Her. 2005, 3, 43–48. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Lai, Y.; Jiang, L.; Xu, X. Exploring Spatio-Temporal Patterns of Urban Village Redevelopment: The Case of Shenzhen, China. Land 2021, 10, 976. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gan, X.; Chen, Y.; Bian, L. From Redevelopment to In Situ Upgrading: Transforming Urban Village Governance in Shenzhen Through the Lens of Informality. China City Plan. Rev. 2019, 28, 30–41. [Google Scholar]
- Lai, Y.; Tang, B. Institutional Barriers to Redevelopment of Urban Villages in China: A Transaction Cost Perspective. Land Use Policy 2016, 58, 482–490. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guo, Y.; Xiao, Y.; Yuan, Q. The Redevelopment of Peri-Urban Villages in the Context of Path-Dependent Land Institution Change and Its Impact on Chinese Inclusive Urbanization: The Case of Nanhai, China. Cities 2017, 60, 466–475. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lin, Y.; De Meulder, B.; Cai, X.; Hu, H.; Lai, Y. Linking Social Housing Provision for Rural Migrants with the Redevelopment of ‘Villages in the City’: A Case Study of Beijing. Cities 2014, 40, 111–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zeng, H.; Yu, X.; Zhang, J. Urban Village Demolition, Migrant Workers’ Rental Costs and Housing Choices: Evidence from Hangzhou, China. Cities 2019, 94, 70–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lang, W.; Chen, T.; Li, X. A New Style of Urbanization in China: Transformation of Urban Rural Communities. Habitat Int. 2016, 55, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, K.; Padua, M.G. China’s Cosmetic Cities: Urban Fever and Superficiality. Landsc. Res. 2007, 32, 255–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, R.; Wong, T.-C. Urban Village Redevelopment in Beijing: The State-Dominated Formalization of Informal Housing. Cities 2018, 72, 160–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hangzhou Municipal Government General Office. Opinions on Carrying out the Pilot Reform of ‘Dismantling Villages and Setting up Urban Communities (Che Cun Jian Ju)’ in Urban Areas; No. 126; Hangzhou Municipal Government General Office: Hangzhou, China, 1998.
- Hangzhou Municipal Government General Office. Opinions on Standardizing the Construction of Villagers’ Housing in the Pilot Reform of ‘Dismantling Villages and Setting up Urban Communities (Che Cun Jian Ju)’; No. 85; Hangzhou Municipal Government General Office: Hangzhou, China, 1999.
- Meijer, M.; Syssner, J. Getting Ahead in Depopulating Areas—How Linking Social Capital Is Used for Informal Planning Practices in Sweden and The Netherlands. J. Rural Stud. 2017, 55, 59–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Syssner, J.; Meijer, M. Informal Planning in Depopulating Rural Areas: A Resource-Based View on Informal Planning Practices. Eur. Countrys. 2017, 9, 458–472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Van Assche, K.; Beunen, R.; Duineveld, M. Formal/Informal Dialectics and the Self-Transformation of Spatial Planning Systems: An Exploration. Adm. Soc. 2013, 46, 654–683. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- International Labor Office (ILO). Employment, Incomes and Equality: A Strategy for Increasing Productive Employment in Kenya; ILO: Geneva, Switzerland, 1972. [Google Scholar]
- Lewis, W.A. Economic development with unlimited supplies of labour. Manch. Sch. Econ. Soc. Stud. 1952, 22, 139–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hart, K. Informal Income Opportunities and Urban Employment in Ghana. J. Mod. Afr. Stud. 1973, 11, 61–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Soto, H. The Other Path: The Invisible Revolution in the Third World; Harper and Row: New York, NY, USA, 1989. [Google Scholar]
- Hall, P.; Pfeiffer, U. Urban Future 21: A Global Agenda for 21st Century Cities; E & FN Spon: London, UK, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Roy, A. Urban Informality: Toward an Epistemology of Planning. J. Am. Plan. Assoc. 2005, 71, 147–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mcfarlane, C.; Waibel, M. Introduction the Informal-Formal Divide in Context. In Urban Informalities: Reflections on the Formal and Informal; McFarlane, C., Waibel, M., Eds.; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2012; pp. 1–12. [Google Scholar]
- Yiftachel, O. Theoretical Notes On ‘Gray Cities’: The Coming of Urban Apartheid? Plan. Theory 2009, 8, 88–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Y. The Credibility of Slums: Informal Housing and Urban Governance in India. Land Use Policy 2018, 79, 876–890. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Roy, A.; AlSayyad, N. (Eds.) Urban Informality: Transnational Perspectives from the Middle East, Latin America, and South Asia; The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc.: Lanham, MD, USA, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- McFarlane, C. Rethinking Informality: Politics, Crisis, and the City. Plan. Theory Pract. 2012, 13, 89–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Devlin, R.T. Asking ‘Third World Questions’ of First World Informality: Using Southern Theory to Parse Needs from Desires in an Analysis of Informal Urbanism of the Global North. Plan. Theory 2018, 17, 568–587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Azunre, G.A.; Amponsah, O.; Takyi, S.A.; Mensah, H. Informality-Sustainable City Nexus: The Place of Informality in Advancing Sustainable Ghanaian Cities. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2021, 67, 102707. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pan, W.; Du, J. Towards Sustainable Urban Transition: A Critical Review of Strategies and Policies of Urban Village Renewal in Shenzhen, China. Land Use Policy 2021, 111, 105744. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Altrock, U. Conceptualizing Informality: Some Thoughts on the Way towards Generalization. In Urban Informalities: Reflections on the Formal and Informal; McFarlane., C., Waibel., M., Eds.; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2012; Volume 9, pp. 171–193. [Google Scholar]
- Banks, N.; Lombard, M.; Mitlin, D. Urban Informality as a Site of Critical Analysis. J. Dev. Stud. 2020, 56, 223–238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Fukui, H. Introduction: On the Significance of Informal Politics. In Informal Politics in East Asia; Dittmer, L., Fukui, H., Lee, P.N.S., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2000; pp. 1–19. [Google Scholar]
- McFarlane, C. Thinking with and beyond the Informal–Formal Relation in Urban Thought. Urban Stud. 2019, 56, 620–623. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schröder, F.; Waibel, M. Urban Governance and Informality in China’s Pearl River Delta. Zeitschrift für Wirtschaftsgeographie 2012, 56, 97–112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mbaye, J.; Dinardi, C. Ins and Outs of the Cultural Polis: Informality, Culture and Governance in the Global South. Urban Stud. 2019, 56, 578–593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tian, L. The Chengzhongcun Land Market in China: Boon or Bane?—A Perspective on Property Rights. Int. J. Urban Reg. Res. 2008, 32, 282–304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zheng, S.; Long, F.; Fan, C.C.; Gu, Y. Urban Villages in China: A 2008 Survey of Migrant Settlements in Beijing. Eurasian Geogr. Econ. 2009, 50, 425–446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sun, L.; Ho, P. Formalizing Informal Homes, a Bad Idea: The Credibility Thesis Applied to China’s “Extra-Legal” Housing. Land Use Policy 2018, 79, 891–901. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, Y.; Liu, Q.; Wang, M. Comparing the Residential Sustainability of Two Transformation Models for Chinese Urban Villages: Demolition/Relocation Market-Oriented and New Rural Construction. Sustainability 2019, 11, 4123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yang, S.; van Oostrum, M. The Self-Governing Redevelopment Approach of Maquanying: Incremental Socio-Spatial Transformation in One of Beijing’s Urban Villages. Habitat Int. 2020, 104, 102235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hao, P.; Hooimeijer, P.; Sliuzas, R.; Geertman, S. What Drives the Spatial Development of Urban Villages in China? Urban Stud. 2013, 50, 3394–3411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schoon, S.; Altrock, U. Conceded Informality. Scopes of Informal Urban Restructuring in the Pearl River Delta. Habitat Int. 2014, 43, 214–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, S.; de Roo, G.; Rauws, W. Understanding Self-Organization and Formal Institutions in Peri-Urban Transformations: A Case Study from Beijing. Environ. Plan. B Urban Anal. City Sci. 2019, 46, 287–303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Galster, G.C.; Hesser, G.W. Residential satisfaction compositional and contextual correlates. Environ. Behav. 1981, 13, 735–758. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Z.; Wu, F. Residential Satisfaction in China’s Informal Settlements: A Case Study of Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou. Urban Geogr. 2013, 34, 923–949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hangzhou Municipal Government General Office. Opinions on the Implementation of Five-Year Action for the Transformation of Urban Villages in Main Urban Areas of Hangzhou (2016–2020); No. 38; Hangzhou Municipal Government General Office: Hangzhou, China, 2016. Available online: http://www.hangzhou.gov.cn/module/idea/que_content.jsp?webid=149&appid=1&topicid=538125&typeid=11 (accessed on 1 July 2020).
- Ye, C.; Ma, X.; Gao, Y.; Johnson, L. The Lost Countryside: Spatial Production of Rural Culture in Tangwan Village in Shanghai. Habitat Int. 2020, 98, 102137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mouratidis, K. Compact City, Urban Sprawl, and Subjective Well-Being. Cities 2019, 92, 261–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tan, Y.; He, J.; Han, H.; Zhang, W. Evaluating Residents’ Satisfaction with Market-Oriented Urban Village Transformation: A Case Study of Yangji Village in Guangzhou, China. Cities 2019, 95, 102394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Delclòs-Alió, X.; Gutiérrez, A.; Miralles-Guasch, C. The Urban Vitality Conditions of Jane Jacobs in Barcelona: Residential and Smartphone-Based Tracking Measurements of the Built Environment in a Mediterranean Metropolis. Cities 2019, 86, 220–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, T.; Li, H.; Skitmore, M. Built Environment and Physical Activity in Suburban Guangzhou Residences: A People–Environment Transaction Perspective. J. Urban Plan. Dev. 2019, 145, 05019013. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Liu, W.; Yang, X.; Zhong, S.; Sissoko, F.; Wei, C. Can Community-Based Concentration Revitalise the Upland Villages? A Case Comparison of Two Villages in Chongqing, Southwestern China. Habitat Int. 2018, 77, 153–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zukin, S. Changing Landscapes of Power: Opulence and the Urge for Authenticity. Int. J. Urban Reg. Res. 2009, 33, 543–553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shih, N.-J.; Lin, C.-Y. The Evolving Urban Fabric and Contour of Old Mountain Streets in Taiwan. Tour. Geogr. 2019, 21, 24–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jiang, Y.; Long, X.; Yang, S. Study on Urban Village Transformation and Cultural Heritage. Archit. Cult. 2021, 208, 2–9. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Li, S.; Cheng, H.; Wang, J. Making a Cultural Cluster in China: A Study of Dafen Oil Painting Village, Shenzhen. Habitat Int. 2014, 41, 156–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ma, H.; Liu, L. Research on Shenzhen Phoenix Village Protective Renovation Strategy Based on the Symbiosis Theory. Mod. Urban Res. 2016, 2016, 30–37. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Wan, C.; Yu, Y. Public Product Orientation: Urban Village Renewal under Polycentric Governance: A Case Study of Ningmeng Talent Apartment in Shuiwei Village, Shenzhen. Urban Plan. Int. 2020, 1, 1–15. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
Luojiazhuang | Yangjiapailou | |
---|---|---|
Planning approach | Formal planning-dominated | Informal planning-dominated |
Location | Wenxin Subdistrict, Xihu District, Hangzhou | Liuxia Subdistrict, Xihu District, Hangzhou |
Distance from the nearest CBD | 7 km | 9.5 km |
Population proportion of local villagers to migrants | 1:6 | 1:7 |
Methods | Dates | Objects |
---|---|---|
Field investigation | 13–19 July 2020 | On-site visit in Luojiazhuang |
20–26 July 2020 | On-site visit in Yangjiapailou | |
Semi-structured interviews | 4 August 2020 | Deputy secretary of the village collective of Luojiazhuang |
25 August 2020 | Director of the village collective of Yangjiapailou | |
5–6 August 2020 | Six local villagers in Luojiazhuang | |
12–13 August 2020 | Four local villagers in Yangjiapailou | |
Questionnaire surveys | 12–13 September 2020, 19–20 September, 2020 | Tenants in Luojiazhuang |
14–15 November 2020, 21–22 November 2020 | Tenants in Yangjiapailou | |
16–17 October 2020 | Shopkeepers in Luojiazhuang | |
23–24 October 2020 | Shopkeepers in Yangjiapailou |
Luojiazhuang | Yangjiapailou | |
---|---|---|
Number of valid responses | 117 (3 invalid) | 82 (3 invalid) |
Age | ||
30 and younger than 30 | 93 (79.49%) | 29 (35.37%) |
31–40 | 14 (11.97%) | 18 (21.95%) |
41–50 | 3 (2.56%) | 11 (13.41%) |
51 and older than 51 | 7 (5.98%) | 24 (29.26%) |
Gender | ||
Male | 67 (57.26%) | 39 (47.56%) |
Female | 50 (42.74%) | 43 (52.44%) |
Education | ||
Lower than middle school | 12 (10.26%) | 40 (48.78%) |
High school | 13 (11.11%) | 19 (23.17%) |
College | 40 (34.19%) | 16 (19.51%) |
Bachelor or above | 52 (44.44%) | 7 (8.54%) |
Household Income (unit: CNY per month) | ||
Below 3000 | 5 (4.27%) | 3 (3.66%) |
3000–9000 | 62 (53.00%) | 40 (48.78%) |
9000–15,000 | 41 (35.05%) | 35 (42.68%) |
Above 15,000 | 9 (7.69%) | 4 (4.88%) |
Inhabitancy Pattern | ||
Living alone | 80 (68.38%) | 20 (24.39%) |
Living with spouse | 28 (23.93%) | 22 (26.83%) |
Living with children | 9 (7.69%) | 28 (34.15%) |
Three generations together | 0 (0) | 12 (14.63%) |
Length of Stay | ||
Less than 3 years | 80 (68.38%) | 34 (41.46%) |
3–5 years | 26 (22.22%) | 13 (15.85%) |
6–9 years | 8 (6.83%) | 18 (21.95%) |
Above 10 years | 3 (2.56%) | 17 (20.73%) |
Luojiazhuang | Yangjiapailou | Difference of Average | Level of Significance | |
---|---|---|---|---|
“I think this community is a good place to live” | 3.74 | 4.33 | −0.59 | 0.000 ** |
“I feel safe living in this community” | 4.21 | 4.66 | −0.45 | 0.000 ** |
“I am familiar with my neighbors” | 3.47 | 4.02 | −0.55 | 0.000 ** |
“I feel happy living in this community” | 3.88 | 4.27 | −0.39 | 0.004 ** |
Average scores | 3.82 | 4.31 | −0.49 | 0.000 ** |
Luojiazhuang | Yangjiapailou | |
---|---|---|
Planning approach | Formal planning-dominated | Informal planning-dominated |
Variations of housing rental income | ||
Annual growth rate of rental price (before 2016) | 11.05% | 7.62% |
Annual growth rate of rental price (2016–2020) | 6.25% | 20.82% |
Stability of business benefits | ||
Changing frequency of business | 0.26 | 0.15 |
Residential satisfaction of tenants | ||
Percentage of respondents who are very satisfied or satisfied with living conditions | 50.43% | 73.17% |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Wu, Y.; Zhang, Y. Formal and Informal Planning-Dominated Urban Village Development: A Comparative Study of Luojiazhuang and Yangjiapailou in Hangzhou, China. Land 2022, 11, 546. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11040546
Wu Y, Zhang Y. Formal and Informal Planning-Dominated Urban Village Development: A Comparative Study of Luojiazhuang and Yangjiapailou in Hangzhou, China. Land. 2022; 11(4):546. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11040546
Chicago/Turabian StyleWu, Yue, and Yi Zhang. 2022. "Formal and Informal Planning-Dominated Urban Village Development: A Comparative Study of Luojiazhuang and Yangjiapailou in Hangzhou, China" Land 11, no. 4: 546. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11040546
APA StyleWu, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2022). Formal and Informal Planning-Dominated Urban Village Development: A Comparative Study of Luojiazhuang and Yangjiapailou in Hangzhou, China. Land, 11(4), 546. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11040546