Terrestrial Laser Scanning for the Detection of Coarse Grain Size Movement in a Mountain Riverbed
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
- the spring thaw, often affected by rainfalls in April;
- the precipitation power falling shortly after the thaw in slightly lower parts of the mountains and the snow cover melting in the higher parts during May;
- heavy summer rainfall in July.
2.2. Terrestrial Laser Scanning
- The goal of the monitoring: Since the transportation of boulders happens occasionally during high flow, scanning campaigns are not required to be executed at constant cycles and can be performed with a longer break period, depending on the flow size.
- The season of the investigation: During autumn, the bed of the Łomniczka River stays almost dry. This presents the perfect conditions for scanning since all boulders are almost completely exposed during that time.
2.3. Detection of Change Zones
2.4. 3D Displacement Determination
2.5. Synthetic Test
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Synthetic Test
- 15 particles were moved on different distances and directions (the movement included both translation and rotation);
- three new particles were placed in the test area for the second-epoch measurement;
- one particle was removed from the test area after the first-epoch measurement.
3.2. Real-World Dataset
3.2.1. Detection of Change Zones
3.2.2. 3D Displacement Determination
3.2.3. Limitations of the Methodology
3.2.4. Alternatives to TLS
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Watercourse Characteristics | Upper Gauge Station | Lower Gauge Station (Karpacz) |
---|---|---|
Length of the stream | 0.55 km | 6.5 km |
Catchment area | 0.46 km2 | 12.1 km2 |
Average inclination of the stream | 89‰ | 136‰ |
Average annual low water level | – | 111 cm |
Average annual medium water level | – | 121 cm |
Average annual high water level | – | 169 cm |
Average annual low flow | 0.007 m3 s−1 | 0.09 m3 s−1 |
Average annual medium flow | 0.024 m3 s−1 | 0.42 m3 s−1 |
Average annual high flow | 0.71 m3 s−1 | 9.09 m3 s−1 |
Maximum recorded water level | – | 260 cm (7 July 1997) |
Maximum recorded water flow | – | 51.6 m3 s−1 (7 July 1997) |
Parameter | Leica ScanStation C10 | Leica ScanStation P20 |
---|---|---|
Laser wavelength | 532 nm (green) | 808 nm/658 nm (infrared/red) |
Horizontal field of view | 360° | 360° |
Vertical field of view | 270° | 270° |
Range | 300 m @90% albedo | 120 m |
134 m @18% albedo | ||
Maximum scan rate | 50,000 points/s | 1,000,000 points/s |
Point 3D position accuracy | 6 mm | 3 mm |
Range accuracy | 4 mm | <1 mm |
Target acquisition standard deviation | 2 mm | 2 mm |
Measurement Epoch | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Date of measurement | 10 November | 23 October | 24 October | 4 October | 30 October | 17 November |
Registration mean absolute error (mm) | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
Georeferencing mean absolute error (mm) | 3 | 11 | 6 | 4 | 5 | 8 |
Movement Type | Correctly Identified | Incorrectly Identified | Not Identified |
---|---|---|---|
Moved particles | 14 | 1 | 0 |
New particles in the area | 3 | 0 | 0 |
Particles removed from the area | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Number | Distance (D) (m) | Reference Distance (DRef) (m) | ∆D = D − DRef (m) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0 |
2 | 0.11 | 0.11 | 0 |
3 | 0.89 | 0.90 | 0.01 |
4 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0 |
5 | 0.41 | 0.40 | 0.01 |
6 | 1.27 | 1.26 | 0.01 |
7 | 0.15 | 0.06 | 0.09 |
8 | 0.85 | 0.82 | 0.03 |
9 | 0.03 | 0.05 | −0.02 |
10 | 1.58 | 1.60 | −0.02 |
11 | 1.13 | 1.16 | −0.03 |
12 | 0.58 | 0.58 | 0 |
13 | 1.02 | 1.13 | −0.11 |
14 | 0.22 | 0.21 | 0.01 |
RMSE | 0.04 |
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Walicka, A.; Jóźków, G.; Kasprzak, M.; Borkowski, A. Terrestrial Laser Scanning for the Detection of Coarse Grain Size Movement in a Mountain Riverbed. Water 2019, 11, 2199. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112199
Walicka A, Jóźków G, Kasprzak M, Borkowski A. Terrestrial Laser Scanning for the Detection of Coarse Grain Size Movement in a Mountain Riverbed. Water. 2019; 11(11):2199. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112199
Chicago/Turabian StyleWalicka, Agata, Grzegorz Jóźków, Marek Kasprzak, and Andrzej Borkowski. 2019. "Terrestrial Laser Scanning for the Detection of Coarse Grain Size Movement in a Mountain Riverbed" Water 11, no. 11: 2199. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112199