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Volume 17
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10.3390/atmos17010036
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

Reliability Assessment of Multi-Source TEC Maps over Brazil Using Ground Truth Validation

by
Marco A. de U. Cintra
1,*,
Stephan Stephany
1,2,
Lamartine N. F. Guimarães
3,
Eurico R. de Paula
4,
André R. F. Martinon
2,
Patrícia M. de S. Negreti
4,
Alison de O. Moraes
5,6 and
Jonas R. de Souza
4
1
Programa de Pós-Graduacão em Computação Aplicada (PG—CAP), Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais—INPE, São José dos Campos 12227-010, SP, Brazil
2
Coordenação-Geral de Infraestrutura e Pesquisas Aplicadas—CGIP, Coordenação de Pesquisa Aplicada e Desenvolvimento Tecnológico—COPDT, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais—INPE, São José dos Campos 12227-010, SP, Brazil
3
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências e Tecnologias Espaciais (PG—CTE), Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica—ITA, Departamento de Ciência e Tecnologia Aeroespacial—DCTA, São José dos Campos 12228-900, SP, Brazil
4
Coordenação-Geral de Engenharia, Tecnologia e Ciência Espaciais—CGCE, Divisão de Heliofísica, Ciências Planetárias e Aeronomia—DIHPA, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais—INPE, São José dos Campos 12227-010, SP, Brazil
5
Instituto de Aeronáutica e Espaço—IAE, Departamento de Ciência e Tecnologia Aeroespacial—DCTA, São José dos Campos 12228-904, SP, Brazil
6
Departamento de Informática, Universidade de Taubaté (UNITAU), Taubaté 12020-270, SP, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Atmosphere 2026, 17(1), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17010036 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 1 September 2025 / Revised: 10 October 2025 / Accepted: 13 October 2025 / Published: 26 December 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ionospheric Disturbances and Space Weather)
Versions Notes

Abstract

Total Electron Content (TEC) maps allow the evaluation of the state of the ionosphere. There are many providers/sources of worldwide or regional TEC maps for the continuous monitoring of the ionosphere, which employ different GNSS monitoring networks for data acquisition, TEC calculation or interpolation methods for generating the maps, or different spatial and temporal resolutions and coverage. How reliable are TEC maps over Brazil? We employed TEC maps from four different providers for 2022–2024, in the growing phase of the current solar cycle 25. Seasonality is also taken into account. A systematic comparison of TEC maps over Brazil was performed using correlation and similarity analysis between maps of different sources. Significant differences were found. Even for the same source there are differences in the density of monitoring stations according to the region. An example of bubble signature in TEC maps is also analyzed. Ground truth validation of TEC is performed by comparing TEC point values extracted from the maps with values derived from a set of GNSS stations over Brazil. As a result, no TEC maps of these sources were deemed reliable, due to low spatial and/or temporal resolution, low monitoring station density, or inadequate interpolation scheme.
Keywords: total electron content; TEC maps; TEC measurements; ionospheric irregularities total electron content; TEC maps; TEC measurements; ionospheric irregularities

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MDPI and ACS Style

Cintra, M.A.d.U.; Stephany, S.; Guimarães, L.N.F.; de Paula, E.R.; Martinon, A.R.F.; Negreti, P.M.d.S.; Moraes, A.d.O.; de Souza, J.R. Reliability Assessment of Multi-Source TEC Maps over Brazil Using Ground Truth Validation. Atmosphere 2026, 17, 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17010036

AMA Style

Cintra MAdU, Stephany S, Guimarães LNF, de Paula ER, Martinon ARF, Negreti PMdS, Moraes AdO, de Souza JR. Reliability Assessment of Multi-Source TEC Maps over Brazil Using Ground Truth Validation. Atmosphere. 2026; 17(1):36. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17010036

Chicago/Turabian Style

Cintra, Marco A. de U., Stephan Stephany, Lamartine N. F. Guimarães, Eurico R. de Paula, André R. F. Martinon, Patrícia M. de S. Negreti, Alison de O. Moraes, and Jonas R. de Souza. 2026. "Reliability Assessment of Multi-Source TEC Maps over Brazil Using Ground Truth Validation" Atmosphere 17, no. 1: 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17010036

APA Style

Cintra, M. A. d. U., Stephany, S., Guimarães, L. N. F., de Paula, E. R., Martinon, A. R. F., Negreti, P. M. d. S., Moraes, A. d. O., & de Souza, J. R. (2026). Reliability Assessment of Multi-Source TEC Maps over Brazil Using Ground Truth Validation. Atmosphere, 17(1), 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17010036

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