Selectivity of Insecticides Used in the Management of Phthorimaea (Tuta) absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) for Adults of Trichogramma pretiosum Riley (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae)

Abstract

The preservation of biological control agents in agroecosystems while simultaneously ensuring the use of insecticides with selective chemical profiles is crucial for sustainable pest management. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the selectivity of insecticides used in the management of Phthorimaea (Tuta) absoluta in tomato crops during the adult stage of Trichogramma pretiosum. The selectivity tests were conducted according to the standards of the International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control/West Palearctic Regional Section. The bioassay was used to assess the direct effects of treatments on T. pretiosum adults through tarsal contact. Specifically, 42 chemical and/or biological insecticides commonly applied in tomato cultivation were used to manage P. absoluta. The insecticides identified as selective (Class 1) for adult T. pretiosum under laboratory conditions were recommended for use in integrated pest management (IPM) programs in tomato crops. These included Hayate^®, Agree^®, Dipel^®, Xentari^®, Tarik^®, Bioexos^®, Verpavex^®, Spodovir^®, Verpavex^® + Spodovir^®, Tuta Vir^®, BioBrev^®, Diplomata^®, VirControl C.i^®, and VirControl S.F^®. Insecticides belonging to the following chemical groups were not selective, that is, they were harmful to T. pretiosum adults: avermectins, milbemycins, diacylhydrazines, oxadiazines, semicarbazones, spinosyns, diamides, chlorfenapyr, nereistoxin analogs, pyrethroids, carbamates, butenolides, isoxazoline, azadirachtin, quinolizidine alkaloids, METI, and benzoylureas. Therefore, these insecticides should be used with caution in IPM programs that target P. absoluta in tomato crops.

1. Introduction

The indiscriminate use of phytosanitary products without proper technical guidance or integration into IPM strategies reduces the abundance of beneficial organisms and compromises the ecological balance of agroecosystems [1,2,3]. Biological control must be integrated with insecticides to promote the sustainability of agroecosystems and support the adoption of integrated pest management (IPM), which involves the combined use of various compatible strategies [4,5].

The integrated management of Phthorimaea (Tuta) absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) is crucial for reducing crop damage and improving tomato yield, and may include both insecticides and the egg parasitoid Trichogramma pretiosum Riley (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae). Insecticides offer rapid and effective control, reduce pest populations, limit reproduction, and target larval and pupal stages, whereas Trichogramma, which parasitizes pest eggs, provides a more sustainable and environmentally friendly solution. Its use may reduce insecticide applications and maintain the pest below economic injury levels. Integrating these methods requires regular monitoring and synergistic application to maximize efficacy and prevent the development of resistance, consequently creating a balanced and effective approach for P. absoluta management [4,5,6,7].

However, the intensive and widespread use of insecticides against P. absoluta has led to rapid resistance development across several chemical groups. Currently, about 64 resistance cases have been documented worldwide. This growing resistance problem undermines the effectiveness of chemical control and highlights the need to integrate selective products with biological control agents for sustainable long-term management [8].

Egg parasitoids of the genus Trichogramma are highly relevant among biological control agents due to their widespread use in agriculture. In addition, they are considered a model species by the International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control (IOBC)—West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS). This organization established the “Working Group Pesticides and Beneficial Organisms” in 1974 to develop standardized methods for testing the selectivity of phytosanitary products. The use of these parasitoids as model organisms is attributed to the ease of their rearing and their effective control of lepidopteran pests [4,5,6,7,9,10].

Trichogramma pretiosum is the most commonly used species for controlling P. absoluta because of its adaptability to laboratory rearing and ability to parasitize a wide range of host species. It has been successfully employed in the management of several lepidopteran pests, including P. absoluta, Chrysodeixis includens (Walker, [1858]) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and Plutella xylostella (Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) [11,12,13].

The incorporation of egg parasitoids such as T. pretiosum in tomato cultivation represents a strategic tool for managing P. absoluta, one of the most destructive pests of tomato crops worldwide [14]. Current studies have focused on key aspects, such as the selectivity of phytosanitary products and the development of selected strains for pest management. P. absoluta poses a significant threat to agricultural production owing to substantial losses and the difficulty associated with its control, a challenge intensified by widespread resistance to insecticides [15,16].

Selective phytosanitary products are essential for preserving biological control agents. Products with reduced impact on beneficial organisms enhance pest suppression while maintaining agroecosystem stability, allowing natural enemies to act consistently over time. This approach helps maintain pest pressure at low levels over the long term and promotes sustainable IPM practices. Careful selection of products maximizes the effectiveness of biological control and minimizes damage to beneficial organisms [12,13]. Therefore, the selectivity of new phytosanitary products warrants comprehensive investigation. With the continuous innovation and emergence of new products in the market, it is crucial to evaluate their effects not only on the target pest, but also on biological control agents.

Control strategies must be harmonized to ensure the sustainability of agricultural systems. In this context, efforts to preserve biological control agent populations are key to strengthening the foundations of IPM programs. Only phytosanitary products demonstrating adequate selectivity should be integrated with other recommended IPM tactics [4,5].

To support the integration of selective products into biological control–based IPM programs, this study evaluated 42 chemical and biological insecticides using the IOBC/WPRS protocol to assess their effects on adult T. pretiosum. The standardized data generated here help guide the selection of insecticides that can be safely combined with egg parasitoids in tomato pest management. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the selectivity of different chemical and biological insecticides used for P. absoluta control in tomato crops, focusing on their effects on adult T. pretiosum under laboratory conditions.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Location and Experimental Facilities

The bioassay was conducted in the laboratory of the Research Group on Integrated Pest Management in Agriculture, Department of Plant Protection, FCA/UNESP, Botucatu Campus—SP (22°50′40.1″ S, 48°26′02.5″ W; altitude: 804 m), in climate-controlled rooms at a temperature of 25 ± 2 °C, under a 12-h photoperiod and 70 ± 10% relative humidity.

2.2. Acquisition and Rearing of T. pretiosum

The T. pretiosum strain used in this study was obtained from a commercial tomato cultivation area in the municipality of Mogi Mirim, São Paulo State (Brazil) using sentinel traps containing sterilized eggs of Ephestia kuehniella (Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). The strains were identified as T. pretiosum through taxonomic comparison of male genitalia [17]. Mass rearing of the parasitoids was performed on E. kuehniella eggs following the methodology proposed by Parra [18], whereas the alternative host was reared as described by Parra et al. [19]. The species/strains were maintained under laboratory conditions for 12 months before the start of the study. The T. pretiosum colony was kept under controlled environmental conditions: 25 ± 2 °C, 70 ± 10% relative humidity, and a 14-h photoperiod.

2.3. Experimental Procedure

The selectivity test was performed in accordance with the guidelines of the IOBC/WPRS. This bioassay was used to evaluate the direct effects of treatments on T. pretiosum adults using 42 chemical and biological insecticides commonly applied for the management of P. absoluta in tomato cultivation. Distilled water was used as the negative control, whereas the positive control was the insecticide Acefato Nortox^® (acephate) (

Table 1. Chemical and biological insecticides were used in the selectivity test on Trichogramma pretiosum adults.

Treatment	Active Ingredient (a.i.)	Commercial Name	Rate 1 (g or mL/ha)	Concentration (g or mL/100 L)	Formulation
1	Control	Distilled water	---	---	---
2	Abamectin	Vertimec 18 CE®, Syngenta, São Paulo, Brazil	1000 mL	100 mL	EC
3	Milbemectin	Milbeknock®, Iharabras, Sorocaba, Brazil	400 mL	40 mL	EC
4	Chlorfluazuron	Atabron Ultra®, ISK Biosciences, Indaiatuba, Brazil	500 mL	50 mL	SC
5	Methoxyfenozide	Intrepid®, Corteva, Barueri, Brazil	500 mL	50 mL	SC
6	Indoxacarb	Avatar®, FMC, Campinas, Brazil	320 mL	32 mL	EC
7	Metaflumizone	Verismo®, BASF, São Paulo, Brazil	1000 mL	100 mL	SC
8	Spinetoram	Delegate®, Corteva, Barueri, Brazil	250 g	25 g	WG
9	Spinosad	Tracer®, Corteva, Barueri, Brazil	170 mL	17 mL	SC
10	Chlorantraniliprole	Premio®, FMC, Campinas, Brazil	200 mL	20 mL	SC
11	Cyantraniliprole	Benevia®, FMC, Campinas, Brazil	500 mL	50 mL	OD
12	Chlorantraniliprole + Abamectin	Voliam Targo®, Syngenta, São Paulo, Brazil	600 mL	60 mL	SC
13	Flubendiamide	Belt®, BAYER, São Paulo, Brazil	125 mL	12.5 mL	SC
14	Cyclaniliprole	Hayate®, ISK Biosciences, Indaiatuba, Brazil	600 mL	60 mL	CS
15	Chlorfenapyr	Pirate®, BASF, São Paulo, Brazil	500 mL	50 mL	SC
16	Tolfenpyrad	Ohkami®, Sumitomo Chemical, São Paulo, Brazil	2250 mL	225 mL	EW
17	Cartap Hydrochloride	Cartap®, Sumitomo Chemical, Maracanaú, Brazil	2500 g	250 g	WP
18	Etofenprox	Trebon®, Sipcam Nichino, Uberaba, Brazil	2000 mL	200 mL	SC
19	Methomyl	Lannate®, Corteva, Barueri, Brazil	1000 mL	100 mL	CS
20	Bifenthrin + Acetamiprid	Sperto®, UPL, Ituverava, Brazil	250 g	25 g	WG
21	Flupyradifurone	Sivanto Prime®, Bayer, São Paulo, Brazil	1000 mL	100 mL	CS
22	Isocycloseram	Joiner®, Syngenta, São Paulo, Brazil	300 mL	30 mL	SC
23	Bacillus thuringiensis	Agree®, Bio Controle, Indaiatuba, Brazil	2500 g	250 g	WP
24	Bacillus thuringiensis	Dipel®, Sumitomo Chemical, Maracanaú, Brazil	1500 mL	150 mL	SC
25	Bacillus thuringiensis	Xentari®, Sumitomo Chemical, Maracanaú, Brazil	1500 g	150 g	WG
26	Bacillus thuringiensis	Tarik®, Vectorcontrol, São Paulo, Brazil	210 mL	21 mL	WP
27	Azadirachtin	Azamax®, UPL, Ituverava, Brazil	2500 mL	250 mL	EC
28	Pongamia + Azadirachtin	Glabraneen®, Incentia Phyto Eco, Indaiatuba, Brazil	2500 mL	250 mL	EC
29	Azadirachtin	Fitonnem®, Dalneem Brasil, Itajaí, Brazil	2500 mL	250 mL	EC
30	Azadirachtin	Bioexos®, Total Biotecnologia, Curitiba, Brazil	500 mL	50 mL	EC
31	Cyantraniliprole + Abamectin	Minecto Pro®, Syngenta, São Paulo, Brazil	600 mL	60 mL	SC
32	Baculovirus (Helicoverpa armigera)	Verpavex®, Andermatt do Brasil, Curitiba, Brazil	500 mL	50 mL	SC
33	Baculovirus (Spodoptera frugiperda)	Spodovir®, Andermatt do Brasil, Curitiba, Brazil	200 g	20 g	WP
34	Baculovirus (Helicoverpa armigera) + (Spodoptera frugiperda)	Verpavex® + Spodovir®, Andermatt do Brasil, Curitiba, Brazil	500 mL + 200 g	50 mL + 20 g	SC + WP
35	Phthorimaea operculella granulovirus	Tuta Vir®, Andermatt do Brasil, Curitiba, Brazil	100 mL	10 mL	SC
36	Bacillus thuringiensis + Brevibacillus laterosporus	BioBrev®, Total Biotecnologia, Curitiba, Brazil	1000 mL	100 mL	SC
37	Sophora flavescens	Matrine®, Dinagro Agropecuária, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil	1500 mL	150 mL	CS
38	Pyridaben	Sanmite EW®, Iharabras, Sorocaba, Brazil	1000 mL	100 mL	EW
39	Chlorfluazuron	Atabron®, ISK Biosciences, Indaiatuba, Brazil	1000 mL	100 mL	EC
40	Chrysodeixis includens virus + Helicoverpa armigera virus	Diplomata®, Koppert, Piracicaba, Brazil	200 mL	20 mL	SC
41	Chrysodeixis includens virus	VirControl C.i®, Simbiose Biociencias, Cruz Alta, Brazil	200 g	20 g	WP
42	Baculovirus (Spodoptera frugiperda)	VirControl S.F®, Simbiose Biociencias, Cruz Alta, Brazil	200 g	20 g	WP
43	Acephate	Acefato Nortox®, Nortox, Arapongas, Brazil	1000 g	100 g	WP

¹ Spray volume: 1000 L/ha. For insecticide solution preparation, each treatment was diluted in 500 mL of water. Formulation types: EC (Emulsifiable Concentrate); SC (Suspension Concentrate); WG (Water-Dispersible Granules); OD (Oil Dispersion); CS (Soluble Concentrate); WP (Wettable Powder); EW (Emulsion, Oil in Water).

and

Table 2. Chemical groups and sites of action of the chemical and biological insecticides used in this experiment.

Commercial Name	Chemical Group	Site of Action
Distilled water	---	---
Vertimec 18 CE®	Avermectins	Allosteric modulators of glutamate-gated chloride channels
Milbeknock®	Milbemycins	Allosteric modulators of glutamate-gated chloride channels
Atabron Ultra®	Benzoylureas	Chitin biosynthesis inhibitors, type 0, Lepidoptera
Intrepid®	Diacylhydrazines	Ecdysone receptor agonists
Avatar®	Oxadiazines	Voltage-gated sodium channel blockers
Verismo®	Semicarbazones	Voltage-gated sodium channel blockers
Delegate®	Spinosyns	Allosteric modulators of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
Tracer®	Spinosyns	Allosteric modulators of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
Premio®	Diamides	Ryanodine receptor modulators
Benevia®	Diamides	Ryanodine receptor modulators
Voliam Targo®	Diamides + Avermectins	Ryanodine receptor modulators + Allosteric modulators of glutamate-gated chloride channels
Belt®	Diamides	Ryanodine receptor modulators
Hayate®	Diamides	Ryanodine receptor modulators
Pirate®	Chlorfenapyr	Oxidative phosphorylation uncouplers via the disruption of the proton gradient
Ohkami®	METI acaricides and insecticides	Mitochondrial electron transport chain complex I inhibitors
Cartap®	Nereistoxin analogs	Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor channel blockers
Trebon®	Pyrethroids	Sodium channel modulators
Lannate®	Carbamates	Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors
Sperto®	Pyrethroids + Neonicotinoids	Sodium channel modulators + Competitive modulators of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
Sivanto®	Butenolides	Competitive modulators of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
Joiner®	Isoxazolines	GABA-gated chloride channel allosteric modulators
Agree®	Microbial insecticide	Microbial disruptors of the midgut membrane (Bt—IRAC 11A)
Dipel®	Microbial insecticide	Microbial disruptors of the midgut membrane (Bt—IRAC 11A)
Xentari®	Microbial insecticide	Microbial disruptors of the midgut membrane (Bt—IRAC 11A)
Tarik®	Microbial insecticide	Microbial disruptors of the midgut membrane (Bt—IRAC 11A)
Azamax®	Azadirachtin	Compounds with an unknown or uncertain mode of action
Glabraneen®	Pongamia + Azadirachtin	Compounds with an unknown or uncertain mode of action
Fitonnem®	Azadirachtin	Compounds with an unknown or uncertain mode of action
Bioexos®	Azadirachtin	Compounds with an unknown or uncertain mode of action
Minecto Pro®	Diamides + Avermectins	Ryanodine receptor modulators + Allosteric modulators of glutamate-gated chloride channels
Verpavex®	Baculovirus (Helicoverpa armigera)	Microbial disruptors of the midgut membrane (IRAC 31)
Spodovir®	Baculovirus (Spodoptera frugiperda)	Microbial disruptors of the midgut membrane (IRAC 31)
Verpavex® + Spodovir®	Baculovirus (Helicoverpa armigera) + (Spodoptera frugiperda)	Microbial disruptors of the midgut membrane (IRAC 31)
Tuta Vir®	Phthorimaea operculella	Microbial disruptors of the midgut membrane (IRAC 31)
BioBrev®	Bacillus thuringiensis + Brevibacillus laterosporus	Microbial disruptors of the midgut membrane (Bt—IRAC 11A) + Unknown (Brevibacillus)
Matrine®	Quinolizidine alkaloids	Sodium channel blockers
Sanmite EW®	METI acaricides and insecticides	Mitochondrial electron transport chain complex I inhibitors
Atabron®	Benzoylureas	Chitin biosynthesis inhibitors, type 0, Lepidoptera
Diplomata®	Chrysodeixis includens virus + Helicoverpa armigera virus	Microbial disruptors of the midgut membrane (IRAC 31)
VirControl C.i®	Chrysodeixis includens virus	Compounds with unknown or uncertain mode of action (IRAC 31)
VirControl S.F®	Spodoptera frugiperda Baculovirus	Compounds with unknown or uncertain mode of action
Acefato Nortox®	Organophosphates	Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors

Source: IRAC/BR [20].

). The experiment was a randomized complete block design with 43 treatments and five replicates.

The insecticide spray solutions for the treatments were prepared in 500 mL disposable cups and diluted in distilled water; pH was then measured using a previously calibrated ASKO pH meter (model AK90). Distilled water was used for product dilution, and 3 mL disposable plastic syringes were used for dosing. Treatments for the selectivity test were applied using an airbrush connected to a PVC tube measuring 200 mm in diameter and 0.90 m in height, with glass plates positioned at the base. For each glass plate, 1.2 mL of the solution was used, and the volume was calculated according to the spray volume per hectare. Application calibration was performed at a rate of 1000 L/ha, pressure of 5 psi, and a deposition of 1.75 ± 0.25 mg/cm² and measured with a precision electronic scale in accordance with IOBC standards. A vacuum pump with a suction system inversion was used (model EL 504; Eletrolab Laboratory Equipment, São Paulo, Brazil) for spray pressurization. The application system was sterilized with 70% alcohol between treatments.

For the tests with T. pretiosum at the adult stage, 0.75-cm² pieces of cards containing approximately 200 parasitized E. kuehniella eggs were separated per replicate. After separation, the cards were placed in Duran tubes measuring 8.5 × 2.5 cm, containing a small streak of pure honey. The tubes were sealed with plastic film and wrapped in aluminum foil. The plastic film was removed, and the tubes were connected to the cages after adult emergence. Insects that emerged inside the tube colonized the cage and were exposed to the products applied to the glass plates, thereby enabling tarsal contact, following the contamination procedure via tarsal exposure as proposed by the IOBC methodology.

The cages consisted of an aluminum frame measuring 13 × 13 cm in length and 3 cm in height, with 1 cm holes covered with black cotton fabric on the sides (Figure 1). The cards containing non-viable E. kuehniella eggs for parasitism were inserted through these holes. The holes allowed cage ventilation, whereas the black fabric prevented the parasitoids from escaping [21].

The front of the cage had an opening where the Duran tubes were attached to release the parasitoids into the cage. The end of each Duran tube was sealed with a PVC plastic film to prevent the escape of individuals [5,22]. After adult emergence, the tubes were wrapped in aluminum foil, the PVC plastic film was removed, and the tubes were connected to cages to allow colonization. Glass plates (169 cm², 2 mm thick) were secured with rubber bands to seal the cages. To avoid direct contact between the cage surfaces and glass, noise-dampening foam was installed along the edges to ensure proper sealing of the cages.

The cages remained interconnected using a silicone hose system connected to a vacuum pump during the bioassays. Air suction from the cages prevented gas accumulation and maintained constant ventilation during treatment. This gas exchange prevented the fumigant effect of some products. The treatment products and control were applied to the upper and lower glass surfaces for parasitoid exposure. After drying, both glass plates were placed on the treated surface, facing the interior of the cage. The outer edges of the glass plates were covered with black paper to ensure that the parasitoids remained concentrated within a 7 × 7 cm area in the center.

After 24 h of cage assembly and insect exposure to the treated glass, 2.0 × 1.5 cm cards containing approximately 600 non-viable E. kuehniella eggs were introduced for three consecutive days. The cages were disassembled 96 h after the experimental setup, and the cards were individually stored in 2 × 22 cm plastic bags filled with oxygen. The cards were evaluated after the emergence and death of the individuals. The total number of eggs, the number of parasitized eggs, and the sex ratio (Equation (1)) of the emerged adults were recorded.

Sex ratio = Number of emerged females/Number of emerged females + Number of emerged males

(1)

The data obtained were used to calculate the reduction in parasitism and parasitoid viability relative to the distilled water treatment, which served as the negative control (Equation (2)).

E (%) = 100 − [(mean value of the treatment/mean value of the control) × 100]

(2)

where E (%) represents the percentage reduction in the beneficial capacity of the parasitoid [23]. The E (%) value calculated for each treatment was used to classify the products according to the standardized IOBC guidelines (

Table 3. International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control (IOBC) guidelines for classifying products according to the percentage reduction in parasitism.

E (%)	Toxicological Classification	Class	Selectivity Classification
E < 30%	Harmless	Class 1	Selective
30% ≤ 79%	Slightly harmful	Class 2	Non-selective
80% ≤ 99%	Moderately harmful	Class 3	Non-selective
E > 99%	Harmful	Class 4	Non-selective

Source: Hassan [9] and Manzoni et al. [23].

).

2.4. Statistical Analyses

The mean parasitism and viability values at 24, 48, and 72 h after parasitoid exposure to treatments were subjected to analysis of variance using an F-test. Statistically significant means were compared using the Scott-Knott test at a 5% probability level. Data analysis was performed using the SISVAR statistical software, version 5.8 [24].

To obtain an integrated assessment of the effect of insecticides on the selectivity to T. pretiosum, the data were subjected to a Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The analysis included parasitism variables recorded at 24, 48, and 72 h, as well as the overall mean, allowing the identification of multivariate patterns among treatments. The first two principal components were retained based on the explained variance and used to interpret the ordination of the insecticides. Visualization was performed through a Biplot, in which the direction and length of the vectors indicated the contribution of each variable to the separation of treatments. The dataset used for the PCA (Excel file with raw parasitism values and loading scores) is provided in the Supplementary Materials (Supplementary File S1). All multivariate analyses were conducted using OriginPro^® software, version 2024 (10.1, trial version; OriginLab Corporation, Northampton, MA, USA).

3. Results

The chemical and biological insecticides used in the present study had varying effects on the parasitism of T. pretiosum (

Table 4. Trichogramma pretiosum parasitism when exposed to chemical and biological insecticides at the adult stage, and the sex ratio of the offspring.

Treatments	1st DAE			2st DAE			3st DAE			Mean			Sex Ratio
	24 h (%)	E%	C	48 h (%)	E%	C	72 h (%)	E%	C	(%)	E%	C
Distilled water	84.4 a	0.00	1	44.0 a	0.00	1	14.6 a	0.00	1	47.6 a	0.00	1	0.65 a
Vertimec 18 CE®	20.8 c	75.4	2	12.4 c	71.9	2	5.78 b	60.3	2	13.0 c	72.8	2	0.63 a
Milbeknock®	49.9 b	40.9	2	30.1 b	31.7	2	13.7 a	6.01	1	31.2 b	34.5	2	0.57 a
Atabron Ultra®	18.0 c	78.6	2	5.47 c	87.6	3	2.91 b	80.0	3	8.80 d	81.5	3	0.55 a
Intrepid®	52.8 b	37.4	2	24.8 b	43.6	2	14.0 a	3.86	1	30.5 b	35.9	2	0.57 a
Avatar®	12.6 d	85.0	3	5.63 c	87.2	3	3.03 b	79.2	2	7.09 d	85.1	3	0.78 a
Verismo®	9.69 d	88.5	3	7.59 c	82.7	3	4.03 b	72.3	2	7.10 d	85.1	3	0.61 a
Delegate®	3.50 d	95.9	3	1.50 c	96.6	3	2.38 b	83.7	3	2.46 d	94.8	3	0.78 a
Tracer®	9.38 d	88.9	3	3.97 c	91.0	3	1.28 b	91.2	3	4.88 d	89.8	3	0.50 a
Premio®	16.8 c	80.1	3	14.6 c	66.9	2	3.38 b	76.8	2	11.6 c	75.7	2	0.60 a
Benevia®	51.4 b	39.1	2	24.6 b	44.1	2	12.7 a	13.1	1	29.5 b	38.0	2	0.66 a
Voliam Targo®	2.22 d	97.4	3	2.63 c	94.0	3	0.00 b	100	4	1.61 d	96.6	3	0.44 b
Belt®	51.0 b	39.6	2	25.8 b	41.5	2	8.75 a	39.9	2	28.5 b	40.2	2	0.58 a
Hayate®	62.3 b	26.1	1	30.3 b	31.2	2	13.2 a	9.23	1	35.3 b	26.0	1	0.55 a
Pirate®	2.72 d	96.8	3	1.75 c	96.0	3	0.88 b	94.0	3	1.78 d	96.3	3	0.37 b
Ohkami®	4.34 d	94.9	3	3.69 c	91.6	3	0.09 b	99.4	4	2.71 d	94.3	3	0.61 a
Cartap®	42.7 b	49.4	2	23.8 b	45.8	2	11.9 a	18.5	1	26.1 b	45.1	2	0.61 a
Trebon®	0.16 d	99.8	4	1.41 c	96.8	3	0.00 b	100	4	0.52 d	98.9	3	0.33 b
Lannate®	0.53 d	99.4	4	0.09 c	99.8	4	0.13 b	99.1	4	0.25 d	99.5	4	0.38 b
Sperto®	1.28 d	98.5	3	0.16 c	99.6	4	0.69 b	95.3	3	0.71 d	98.5	3	0.38 b
Sivanto®	31.7 c	62.4	2	11.8 c	73.3	2	4.50 b	69.1	2	16.0 c	66.4	2	0.58 a
Joiner®	34.8 c	58.7	2	8.66 c	80.3	3	5.34 b	63.3	2	16.3 c	65.9	2	0.62 a
Agree®	70.8 a	16.0	1	28.5 b	35.2	2	14.1 a	3.22	1	37.8 a	20.6	1	0.60 a
Dipel®	64.6 a	23.4	1	31.1 b	29.3	1	11.3 a	22.5	1	35.7 b	25.2	1	0.60 a
Xentari®	73.6 a	12.8	1	36.1 a	18.0	1	13.9 a	4.29	1	41.2 a	13.5	1	0.65 a
Tarik®	70.4 a	16.5	1	35.4 a	19.6	1	13.3 a	8.58	1	39.7 a	16.7	1	0.64 a
Azamax®	46.9 b	44.4	2	14.4 c	67.2	2	6.22 b	57.3	2	22.5 c	52.8	2	0.53 a
Glabraneen®	32.6 c	61.3	2	8.69 c	80.3	3	5.03 b	65.5	2	15.4 c	67.6	2	0.61 a
Fitonnem®	36.7 c	56.5	2	9.94 c	77.4	2	5.47 b	62.4	2	17.4 c	63.5	2	0.62 a
Bioexos®	61.1 b	27.6	1	31.6 b	28.1	1	12.6 a	13.5	1	35.1 b	26.3	1	0.65 a
Minecto Pro®	33.9 c	59.8	2	22.9 b	47.9	2	8.69 a	40.3	2	21.8 c	54.2	2	0.55 a
Verpavex®	73.8 a	12.5	1	38.9 a	11.6	1	11.5 a	20.8	1	41.4 a	13.1	1	0.47 a
Spodovir®	74.7 a	11.5	1	41.1 a	6.53	1	11.8 a	19.1	1	42.5 a	10.7	1	0.58 a
Verpavex® + Spodovir®	66.9 a	20.7	1	35.2 a	20.0	1	12.4 a	14.8	1	38.2 a	19.9	1	0.55 a
Tuta Vir®	80.3 a	4.89	1	39.3 a	10.7	1	13.1 a	10.1	1	44.2 a	7.21	1	0.55 a
BioBrev®	73.6 a	12.8	1	42.1 a	4.33	1	13.3 a	8.37	1	43.0 a	9.73	1	0.59 a
Matrine®	58.0 b	31.3	2	28.3 b	35.8	2	13.3 a	8.37	1	33.2 b	30.3	2	0.64 a
Sanmite EW®	55.7 b	34.0	2	26.6 b	39.6	2	8.41 a	42.3	2	30.2 b	36.6	2	0.61 a
Atabron®	18.9 c	77.6	2	8.47 c	80.8	3	4.00 b	72.5	2	10.4 c	78.1	2	0.61 a
Diplomata®	75.8 a	10.2	1	40.7 a	7.46	1	12.8 a	11.8	1	43.1 a	9.53	1	0.60 a
VirControl C.i®	72.6 a	13.9	1	36.0 a	18.2	1	12.4 a	14.6	1	40.4 a	15.3	1	0.62 a
VirControl S.F®	69.5 a	17.6	1	39.5 a	10.2	1	12.8 a	12.4	1	40.6 a	14.8	1	0.61 a
Acefato Nortox®	0.19 d	99.8	4	0.03 c	99.9	4	0.00 b	100	4	0.07 d	99.8	4	0.00 c
F-test	19.5 *	--	--	11.5 *	--	--	10.0 *	--	--	21.3 *	--	--	4.70 *
C.V. (%)	19.0	--	--	21.6	--	--	15.5	--	--	15.9	--	--	1.19

* Means followed by the same lowercase letter in the column do not differ significantly from each other according to Scott–Knott test (p ≤ 0.05). C.V. = Coefficient of variation. DAE: Days after parasitoid (Trichogramma pretiosum) emergence. Sex ratio: sex ratio of the offspring (F1). C: class 1—harmless (E < 30%), class 2—slightly harmful (30% ≤ E ≤ 79%), class 3—moderately harmful (80% ≤ E ≤ 99%), class 4—harmful (E > 99%). E%: Reduction in the beneficial capacity of the parasitoid.

). The treatments classified as harmless (E < 30%) were Hayate^®, Agree^®, Dipel^®, Xentari^®, Tarik^®, Bioexos^®, Verpavex^®, Spodovir^®, Verpavex^® + Spodovir^®, Tuta Vir^®, BioBrev^®, Diplomata^®, VirControl C.i^®, and VirControl S.F^®. Those classified as slightly harmful (30 ≤ E ≤ 79%) included Vertimec 18 CE^®, Milbeknock^®, Intrepid^®, Premio^®, Benevia^®, Belt^®, Cartap^®, Sivanto^®, Joiner^®, Azamax^®, Glabraneen^®, Fitonnem^®, Minecto Pro^®, Matrine^®, Sanmite EW^®, and Atabron^®. Finally, treatments classified as moderately harmful (80 ≤ E ≤ 99%) were Atabron Ultra^®, Avatar^®, Verismo^®, Delegate^®, Tracer^®, Voliam Targo^®, Pirate^®, Ohkami^®, Trebon^®, and Sperto^® (Table 4). The only treatments classified as harmful (E > 99%) were Lannate^® and the insecticide Acefato Nortox^®, which was used as the positive control (Table 4).

Regarding the reduction in beneficial capacity (E%), a consistent increase in E% values was observed according to product toxicity. Harmless treatments-maintained reductions below 30%, whereas moderately harmful products showed reductions above 80%, reflecting strong impacts on parasitism throughout the 72-h exposure period. Lannate^® and Acefato Nortox^® resulted in the highest E% values (>99%), indicating immediate and severe effects on adult survival (Table 4).

The sex ratio remained similar to the control in the harmless and slightly harmful treatments (0.55–0.65), indicating no detectable effects on this parameter. Among moderately harmful treatments, some products caused moderate reductions (0.33–0.44), suggesting sublethal impacts on progeny development. The lowest sex ratio values were recorded for harmful treatments, demonstrating a strong compromise of offspring viability. These results show that more toxic compounds negatively affect not only parasitism but also key reproductive parameters of T. pretiosum (Table 4).

The chemical and biological insecticides used in the present study also exhibited varying effects on the viability of eggs parasitized by T. pretiosum (

Table 5. Parasitism viability of Trichogramma pretiosum when exposed to chemical and biological insecticides during the adult stage.

Treatments	1st DAE			2st DAE			3st DAE			Mean
	24 h (%)	E%	C	48 h (%)	E%	C	72 h (%)	E%	C	(%)	E%	C
Distilled water	99.1 a	0.00	1	99.3 a	0.00	1	93.8 a	0.00	1	98.6 a	0.00	1
Vertimec 18 CE®	93.8 a	5.32	1	70.1 a	29.4	1	48.7 c	48.1	2	81.5 b	17.3	1
Milbeknock®	94.6 a	4.50	1	91.6 a	7.78	1	89.3 a	4.73	1	93.4 a	5.20	1
Atabron Ultra®	78.6 a	20.7	1	44.4 b	55.3	2	58.3 b	37.8	2	77.2 b	21.7	1
Intrepid®	95.1 a	3.99	1	92.3 a	7.11	1	86.7 a	7.58	1	92.8 a	5.82	1
Avatar®	99.3 a	0.18	1	97.2 a	2.18	1	85.0 a	9.40	1	97.1 a	1.50	1
Verismo®	94.1 a	5.05	1	92.0 a	7.40	1	81.4 a	13.2	1	91.3 a	7.43	1
Delegate®	78.0 a	21.3	1	95.8 a	3.59	1	50.1 c	46.6	2	92.9 a	5.73	1
Tracer®	92.9 a	6.22	1	78.9 a	20.5	1	63.5 b	32.3	2	94.2 a	4.43	1
Premio®	88.2 a	11.0	1	84.8 a	14.6	1	82.6 a	12.0	1	86.6 a	12.1	1
Benevia®	98.0 a	1.14	1	96.7 a	2.65	1	91.5 a	2.45	1	96.7 a	1.92	1
Voliam Targo®	54.7 b	44.8	2	53.8 b	45.8	2	0.00 d	100	4	68.9 b	30.1	2
Belt®	98.4 a	0.74	1	98.4 a	0.91	1	94.5 a	−0.76	1	98.0 a	0.55	1
Hayate®	99.2 a	−0.07	1	98.8 a	0.55	1	93.0 a	0.81	1	98.4 a	0.16	1
Pirate®	52.1 b	47.4	2	48.7 b	51.0	2	35.9 c	61.7	2	48.5 c	50.8	2
Ohkami®	76.8 a	22.5	1	53.2 b	46.5	2	0.00 d	100	4	89.0 a	9.70	1
Cartap®	93.3 a	5.89	1	96.3 a	3.02	1	91.1 a	2.84	1	93.8 a	4.89	1
Trebon®	10.0 d	89.9	3	30.0 c	69.8	2	0.00 d	100	4	27.9 c	71.7	2
Lannate®	30.6 c	69.2	2	13.3 c	86.6	3	10.0 d	89.3	3	42.6 c	56.8	2
Sperto®	31.8 c	68.0	2	23.3 c	76.5	2	31.0 c	66.9	2	46.0 c	53.3	2
Sivanto®	97.0 a	2.11	1	95.1 a	4.27	1	91.0 a	2.91	1	96.1 a	2.47	1
Joiner®	94.9 a	4.18	1	92.3 a	7.09	1	90.4 a	3.56	1	94.6 a	4.00	1
Agree®	93.9 a	5.28	1	91.4 a	7.99	1	91.0 a	2.96	1	93.0 a	5.66	1
Dipel®	95.2 a	3.91	1	91.3 a	8.06	1	86.6 a	7.60	1	93.2 a	5.48	1
Xentari®	99.1 a	−0.05	1	94.4 a	5.01	1	92.6 a	1.23	1	97.4 a	1.20	1
Tarik®	98.6 a	0.45	1	93.3 a	6.12	1	91.3 a	2.66	1	96.6 a	1.99	1
Azamax®	96.0 a	3.08	1	71.9 a	27.6	1	53.9 b	42.5	2	94.5 a	4.09	1
Glabraneen®	74.3 a	25.0	1	77.4 a	22.0	1	67.8 b	27.7	1	74.7 b	24.2	1
Fitonnem®	67.7 a	31.7	2	73.4 a	26.1	1	64.1 b	31.7	2	68.1 b	31.0	2
Bioexos®	97.2 a	1.88	1	95.7 a	3.69	1	94.1 a	−0.38	1	96.4 a	2.24	1
Minecto Pro®	96.4 a	2.75	1	93.7 a	5.71	1	86.5 a	7.72	1	94.3 a	4.32	1
Verpavex®	97.5 a	1.65	1	98.0 a	1.36	1	91.4 a	2.57	1	97.1 a	1.51	1
Spodovir®	95.8 a	3.32	1	94.3 a	5.10	1	85.6 a	8.68	1	94.6 a	4.02	1
Verpavex® + Spodovir®	96.7 a	2.44	1	95.2 a	4.16	1	86.0 a	8.28	1	95.1 a	3.54	1
Tuta Vir®	97.7 a	1.38	1	90.4 a	9.02	1	91.5 a	2.38	1	95.5 a	3.16	1
BioBrev®	97.5 a	1.60	1	95.5 a	3.82	1	92.1 a	1.83	1	96.4 a	2.20	1
Matrine®	97.1 a	1.99	1	94.3 a	5.11	1	92.1 a	1.83	1	96.0 a	2.66	1
Sanmite EW®	93.4 a	5.78	1	88.3 a	11.1	1	76.6 a	18.3	1	90.5 a	8.17	1
Atabron®	87.6 a	11.6	1	90.3 a	9.14	1	86.6 a	7.68	1	88.7 a	9.99	1
Diplomata®	95.1 a	4.08	1	90.6 a	8.78	1	85.5 a	8.79	1	93.2 a	5.44	1
VirControl C.i®	94.4 a	4.73	1	88.4 a	11.1	1	82.3 a	12.2	1	91.8 a	6.88	1
VirControl S.F®	94.7 a	4.39	1	92.1 a	7.27	1	85.6 a	8.67	1	93.0 a	5.64	1
Acefato Nortox®	0.00 d	100	4	0.00 c	100	4	0.00 d	100	4	0.00 d	100	4
F-test	9.77 *	--	--	7.01 *	--	--	13.5 *	--	--	8.90 *	--	--
C.V. (%)	16.0	--	--	20.1	--	--	19.5	--	--	14.2	--	--

* Means followed by the same lowercase letter in the column do not differ significantly from each other according to Scott–Knott test (p ≤ 0.05). C.V. = Coefficient of variation. DAE: Day(s) after parasitoid (Trichogramma pretiosum) emergence. C: class 1—harmless (E < 30%), class 2—slightly harmful (30% ≤ E ≤ 79%), class 3—moderately harmful (80% ≤ E ≤ 99%), class 4—harmful (E > 99%). E%: Reduction in the beneficial capacity of the parasitoid.

). However, only Voliam Targo^®, Pirate^®, Trebon^®, Lannate^®, Sperto^®, and Fitonnem^® resulted in lower viability of parasitized eggs. Thus, they were classified as slightly harmful (30 ≤ E ≤ 79%) (Table 5).

Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to the dataset to establish a descriptive model for grouping insecticides based on their selectivity. The PCA separated the insecticides into groups according to their level of selectivity toward T. pretiosum after 24, 48, and 72 h, as well as the overall mean, based on principal components 1 (PC1) and 2 (PC2) (Figure 2). PC1 and PC2 explained 99.17% of the variance. PC1 accounted for 97.45% of the variability, and the parameters that affected this component were parasitism at 24, 48, and 72 h, and mean parasitism (Figure 2).

PCA separated the insecticides into three distinct groups. The first group included Verpavex^® + Spodovir^®, Dipel^®, VirControl C.i^®, VirControl S.F^®, BioBrev^®, TutaVir^®, Diplomata^®, Sanmite EW^®, Verpavex^®, and Spodovir^®. These insecticides were selective for T. pretiosum and yielded mean parasitism and parasitism similar to those of the negative control after 24 and 48 h. The second group consisted of Intrepid^®, Cartap^®, Milbecknock^®, Benevia^®, Matrine^®, Agree^®, Hayate^®, Minecto Pro^®, Bioexos^®, Xentari^®, and Tarik^®, which showed higher T. pretiosum parasitism after 72 h of exposure. The third group comprised the remaining products, which were less selective for T. pretiosum and exhibited lower mean parasitism and parasitism after 24, 48, and 72 h of exposure (Figure 2).

4. Discussion

The present study demonstrates marked variation in the selectivity of chemical and biological insecticides toward T. pretiosum, reinforcing their relevance for integrated pest management (IPM). Overall, biological-origin products were the most compatible with the parasitoid, while conventional neurotoxic insecticides, carbamates, pyrethroids, nereistoxins, organophosphates, and neonicotinoids were predominantly harmful or non-selective.

Biological products consistently supported the highest parasitism and viability and were therefore classified as harmless. Baculovirus-based formulations (Verpavex^®, Spodovir^®, Verpavex^® + Spodovir^®, Diplomata^®, VirControl C.i^®, VirControl S.F^®, Tuta Vir^®, BioBrev^®) target only lepidopteran larvae, providing dual control of the pest while remaining safe for T. pretiosum [3,25,26]. Their strict host specificity prevents infection of parasitoids and allows T. pretiosum to continue parasitizing eggs after application. Moreover, by reducing larval populations, baculoviruses may indirectly enhance parasitoid efficiency by lowering pest pressure and competition [25,26].

Similarly, Bacillus thuringiensis products (Dipel^®, Xentari^®, Agree^®, Tarik^®) act exclusively in insects whose midgut conditions allow toxin activation—mainly Lepidoptera—thus posing negligible risk to T. pretiosum [5,27,28]. Because the parasitoid lacks the intestinal pH required for toxin solubilization, these products do not impair adult survival or offspring development and may even favor parasitism through physiological compatibility [5,27,28].

Among chemical insecticides, several groups demonstrated relatively selective profiles. Diamides (Minecto Pro^®, Premio^®, Benevia^®, Belt^®) act on ryanodine receptors, which exhibit low affinity in parasitoids, resulting in reduced toxicity [3,5,29]. Benzoylureas (Atabron^®, Atabron Ultra^®) inhibit chitin synthesis in host insects and generally show low direct toxicity to parasitoids; however, exposure to residues may cause sublethal or cumulative effects, potentially affecting reproductive capacity or host-searching behavior under prolonged exposure [3,30,31]. These results reinforce that selectivity cannot be generalized across chemical classes and must be evaluated according to species, life stage, and exposure conditions.

Although diamide insecticides generally showed similar patterns of selectivity toward T. pretiosum, Hayate^® (cyclaniliprole) differed from the other products of this group by being classified as harmless (Class 1; E = 26.0%). This difference may be associated with specific characteristics of cyclaniliprole and its formulation. Although diamides share the same primary mode of action, modulation of ryanodine receptors, differences in molecular structure can influence receptor affinity and metabolic detoxification in non-target arthropods, resulting in variable toxicity among compounds within the same chemical class. In addition, formulation characteristics may also influence exposure levels. Hayate^® is formulated as a CS (capsule suspension), which can modify the release dynamics of the active ingredient and reduce direct contact toxicity compared with SC or OD formulations used by other diamides evaluated in this study. Such formulation-dependent differences in bioavailability may partly explain the higher selectivity observed for cyclaniliprole. Similar variability in the toxicity of diamide insecticides to parasitoids has been reported in previous studies, indicating that selectivity cannot always be generalized at the chemical-group level and must be assessed for each active ingredient and formulation.

In contrast, plant-derived products exhibited variable or non-selective performance. Extracts such as Fitonnem^® and Glabraneen^® reduced parasitism and offspring viability despite being of natural origin, likely due to repellent, growth-regulatory, or feeding-inhibitory properties [32,33]. Azadirachta indica–based products (e.g., Azamax^®) also showed non-selective effects; however, previous studies indicate that nanoencapsulated formulations may reduce toxicity to T. pretiosum, highlighting the importance of formulation in improving selectivity [32,33]. Products derived from Sophora flavescens likewise showed inconsistent selectivity, potentially affecting survival and emergence depending on exposure conditions [34,35].

The least selective compounds were conventional neurotoxic insecticides. Acephate exhibited the most severe toxicity (E > 99%), consistent with its organophosphate mode of action, which inhibits cholinesterase, an enzyme essential for normal neuromuscular function [24,36,37]. This non-selective mechanism equally affects pests and beneficial organisms, impairing host location, parasitism, and survival of parasitoids [36,37,38]. Cartap^®, a nereistoxin analog, also showed non-selective effects, likely due to interference with nerve impulse transmission following contact with surface residues [39,40]. Pyrethroids (Trebon^®, Sperto^®) caused strong lethal and sublethal effects by disrupting sodium channels, leading to paralysis and behavioral impairment [41]. Sperto^® further contains a neonicotinoid component, which is widely recognized as toxic to adult parasitoids [35,37]. Chlorfenapyr (Pirate^®), which disrupts oxidative metabolism, also negatively affected survival, behavior, and reproductive capacity [42,43]. Carbamates such as methomyl (Lannate^®), commonly used as positive controls in selectivity assays, strongly inhibited acetylcholinesterase and caused high mortality and reduced parasitic capacity in T. pretiosum [43,44].

Differences in selectivity were reflected in parasitism rates. Harmless treatments-maintained E < 30% across exposure times, whereas moderately harmful products exceeded 80% reduction in parasitism, indicating substantial impairment of biological control capacity. Acefato Nortox^® and Lannate^® showed the highest E% values (>99%), resulting in severe and immediate toxicity. Slightly harmful treatments (e.g., Vertimec 18 CE^®, Atabron Ultra^®, Intrepid^®, Premio^®, Benevia^®) produced intermediate reductions but were less detrimental than neurotoxic insecticides.

Sex ratio, a key quality parameter in mass-rearing programs, remained similar to the control (0.55–0.65) for harmless and slightly harmful treatments. However, moderately harmful and harmful products—particularly Voliam Targo^®, Pirate^®, Trebon^®, Lannate^®, and Sperto^®—reduced the proportion of female offspring (0.33–0.44). Because only females contribute to parasitism, reductions in female-biased sex ratio can compromise population growth, field establishment, and long-term biological control efficiency, increasing dependence on chemical control and favoring resistance development [4,5,45,46].

Viability followed a similar pattern. Most products did not reduce adult emergence and were classified as harmless. In contrast, Voliam Targo^®, Pirate^®, Trebon^®, Lannate^®, Sperto^®, and Fitonnem^® reduced offspring emergence and were classified as slightly harmful (30 ≤ E ≤ 79%). These results are consistent with previous reports indicating that spinosyns (e.g., Tracer^®) and other neuroactive compounds can reduce emergence and parasitism in T. pretiosum and other Trichogramma species [5,47,48,49,50]. In mass-rearing programs, emergence rates above 85% are considered acceptable [4,5], a threshold consistently achieved only by Class 1 products.

Part of the tolerance of T. pretiosum to certain insecticides may be associated with detoxification mechanisms, such as the activity of degradation enzymes, including cytochrome P450 monooxygenases [42,51]. These enzymes are known to metabolize insecticidal compounds and reduce toxicity, as observed in resistant populations of pest species such as Bemisia tabaci [42]. Similar mechanisms may contribute to the differential tolerance observed among treatments in this study, although further investigation is required.

Multivariate analysis reinforced these patterns. Principal component analysis (PCA) grouped insecticides according to their selectivity toward T. pretiosum, clearly separating harmless products from those with moderate or high toxicity. The strong contribution of parasitism at different exposure times to PC1 confirmed that parasitism reduction was the main factor driving selectivity patterns, supporting the classifications obtained from IOBC criteria.

The variability observed among products highlights the influence of formulation components, exposure duration, environmental conditions, and application timing on parasitoid responses [52,53]. Even biological insecticides may pose risks depending on formulation and context. Therefore, maintaining an appropriate interval between insecticide application and parasitoid release may improve survival and performance in IPM programs [53].

Finally, although the present results support the integration of selective insecticides with T. pretiosum, laboratory assays represent only the first phase of selectivity assessment according to IOBC protocols. Laboratory conditions maximize exposure and do not fully represent field scenarios. Consequently, greenhouse and field evaluations are essential to confirm compatibility and ensure the sustainability of biological control programs.

5. Conclusions

The insecticides that were selective for T. pretiosum adults under laboratory conditions, and may therefore be recommended in IPM programs targeting P. absoluta control in tomato crops, are Hayate^®, Agree^®, Dipel^®, Xentari^®, Tarik^®, Bioexos^®, Verpavex^®, Spodovir^®, Verpavex^® + Spodovir^®, Tuta Vir^®, BioBrev^®, Diplomata^®, VirControl C.i^®, and VirControl S.F^® (Class 1).

The insecticides Vertimec 18 CE^®, Milbeknock^®, Intrepid^®, Premio^®, Benevia^®, Belt^®, Cartap^®, Sivanto^®, Joiner^®, Azamax^®, Glabraneen^®, Fitonnem^®, Minecto Pro^®, Matrine^®, Sanmite EW^®, Atabron^® (Class 2), Atabron Ultra^®, Avatar^®, Verismo^®, Delegate^®, Tracer^®, Voliam Targo^®, Pirate^®, Ohkami^®, Trebon^®, Sperto^® (Class 3), and Lannate^® (Class 4) are harmful to T. pretiosum adults. Therefore, these insecticides should be used with caution during IPM programs for tomato cultivation.