A Review of the Impact of Mycotoxins on Dairy Cattle Health: Challenges for Food Safety and Dairy Production in Sub-Saharan Africa
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Legislation of Mycotoxins in Africa
3. Incidence of Mycotoxins in Dairy Feed in Sub-Saharan Africa
3.1. East Africa
3.2. Central Africa
3.3. West Africa
3.4. South Africa
4. Impact of Mycotoxins in Dairy
4.1. Aflatoxins
4.2. Deoxynivalenol
4.3. Fumonisins
4.4. Ochratoxin A
4.5. T-2 toxin
4.6. Zearalenone
5. Food Safety and Hazards of Mycotoxins
5.1. East Africa
5.2. Central Africa
5.3. South Africa
5.4. West Africa
6. Mycotoxin Mitigation Strategies
6.1. Chemical Decontamination
6.2. Physical Decontamination
6.3. Biological Decontamination
6.4. Vaccination against AFs
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Country/Region | Regulatory Limit (µg/kg) | Guidance Values (µg/kg) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total AF | AFB1 | Milk AFM1 | DON | FUM | OTA | ZEN | Reference | |
Central Africa region | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
East Africa Community | 10 | 5 | 0.5 | - | - | - | - | [16] |
West Africa region | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
South Africa | 10 | 5 | 0.05 | 3000 | 50,000 | - | 500 | [10] |
Rwanda | 10 | 5 | - | - | - | - | - | [13] |
Nigeria | - | 5 | 0.5 | - | - | - | - | [14] |
Senegal | - | 50 | - | - | - | - | - | [12] |
Cote d’ Ivorie | 10 | - | - | - | - | - | - | [12] |
Mozambique | 10 | - | - | - | - | - | - | [12] |
CODEX | - | 5 | 0.5 | - | - | - | - | [15] |
European Union | - | 5 | 0.05 | 5000 | 50,000 | - | 500 | [18] |
USA | 20 | - | 0.5 | - | 30,000 | - | - | [19] |
Aflatoxins | |||||||||
Country | Mycotoxin | Test | Feed | n | Positive (%) | Above EU Limit (%) | Max (µg/kg) | Mean (µg/kg) | Reference |
Ethiopia | AFB1 | ELISA | Dairy feed (compounded feed, brewer yeast, silage, maize, and pea hull) | 156 | 100% | 100% | 419 | 97 | [33] |
Ghana | AF | HPLC-FLD | Animal feed and raw materials | 18 | 72% | 199 | 26 | [21] | |
Kenya | AF | ELISA | Animal feed (moldy maize) | 207 | 56% | 7.13 | 3.8 | [17] | |
AFB1 | ELISA | Concentrates and forages | 74 | 57% | 56% | 147.9 | 28.3 | [6] | |
AFB1 | ELISA | Compound dairy feed (Manufacturer) | 102 | 62% | 4682 | 9.8 | [27] | ||
AFB1 | Dairy feed (Retailers) | 31 | 90% | 1198 | 25.6 | ||||
AFB1 | Dairy feed (Farmer) | 114 | 73% | 9661 | 13.7 | ||||
AF | TLC | Dairy feed | 72 | 100% | 95% | 1123 | [34] | ||
AF | HPLC-FLD | Animal feed and raw materials | 27 | 78% | 556 | 52 | [21] | ||
Nigeria | AFB1 | HPLC-FLD | Dairy feed | 144 | 87% | 66% | 24.8 | 10.5 | [35] |
AF | HPLC-FLD | Animal feeds and raw materials | 50 | 94% | 435.9 | 115 | [21] | ||
Sudan | AF | HPLC-FLD | Animal feed and raw materials | 13 | 54% | 75 | 90 | [21] | |
South Africa | AFB1 | UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS | Dairy feed | 40 | 48% | 62% | 3.3 | 0.7 | [11] |
AFB2 | Dairy feed | 40 | 93% | 23.9 | 3.1 | ||||
AFG1 | Dairy feed | 40 | 55% | 19.9 | 2.6 | ||||
AFG2 | Dairy feed | 40 | 100% | 116.0 | 41.3 | ||||
AF | LC-MS/MS | Compounded dairy feeds | 25 | 52% | 16% | 71.8 | 14.7 | [10] | |
AF | HPLC-FLD | Animal feed and raw materials | 77 | 6% | 7 | 0.2 | [21] | ||
Tanzania | AFB1 | ELISA | Spoilt maize | 41 | 29% | 3.5 | [28] | ||
AFB1 | Maize bran | 20 | 60% | 3.3 | |||||
AFB1 | HPLC | Sunflower based dairy feed | 20 | 65% | 62% | 20.5 | [36] | ||
Type B Trichothecenes | |||||||||
Country | Mycotoxin | Test | Feed | n | Positive (%) | Max (µg/kg) | Mean (µg/kg) | Reference | |
Ghana | Type B trichothecenes (DON, 3/15-Ac-DON, and NIV) | HPLC-UV | Animal feed and raw materials | 18 | 50% | 1550 | 955 | [21] | |
Kenya | Type B trichothecenes (DON, 3/15-Ac-DON, and NIV) | HPLC-UV | Animal feed and raw materials | 25 | 48 | 3859 | 422 | ||
Type B trichothecenes (DON, 3/15-Ac-DON, and NIV) | ELISA | Concentrates and forages | 74 | 63% | 180 | 49 | [6] | ||
Nigeria | Type B trichothecenes (DON, 3/15-Ac-DON, and NIV) | HPLC-UV | Animal feeds and raw materials | 45 | 58% | 463 | 316 | [21] | |
Sudan | Type B trichothecenes (DON, 3/15-Ac-DON, and NIV) | HPLC-UV | Animal feed and raw materials | 9 | 33% | 353 | 100 | [21] | |
South Africa | Type B trichothecenes (DON, 3/15-Ac-DON, and NIV) | HPLC-UV | Animal feed and raw materials | 77 | 87% | 11,022 | 1469 | [21] | |
DON | UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS | Dairy feed | 40 | 60% | 82 | 20 | [11] | ||
DON | LC-MS/MS | Compounded dairy feeds | 25 | 96% | 2280 | 891 | [10] | ||
Fumonisins | |||||||||
Country | Mycotoxin | Test | Feed | n | Positive (%) | Max (µg/kg) | Mean (µg/kg) | Reference | |
Ghana | FUM | LC-MS | Animal feed and raw materials | 18 | 89% | 929 | 500 | [21] | |
Kenya | FUM | LC-MS | Animal feed and raw materials | 25 | 76 | 10,485 | 956 | [21] | |
Nigeria | FUM | LC-MS | Animal feeds and raw materials | 45 | 78% | 2860 | 919 | [21] | |
Sudan | FUM | LC-MS | Animal feed and raw materials | 9 | 11% | 23 | 23 | [21] | |
South Africa | FUM | LC-MS/MS | Compounded dairy feeds | 25 | 100% | 2497 | 975 | [10] | |
FB1 | UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS | Dairy feed | 40 | 85% | 1390 | 373 | [11] | ||
FUM | LC-MS | Animal feed and raw materials | 77 | 57% | 4398 | 454 | [21] | ||
Tanzania | FUM | ELISA | Spoilt maize | 41 | 51% | 14,450 | [28] | ||
FUM | ELISA | Maize bran | 20 | 60% | 1630 | ||||
HT-2 Toxin | |||||||||
Country | Mycotoxin | Test | Feed | n | Positive (%) | Max (µg/kg) | Mean (µg/kg) | Reference | |
South Africa | HT-2 | UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS | Dairy feed | 40 | 88% | 313 | 35 | [11] | |
Ochratoxin a | |||||||||
Country | Mycotoxin | Test | Feed | n | Positive (%) | Max (µg/Kg) | Mean (µg/Kg) | Reference | |
Kenya | OTA | HPLC-FLD | Animal feed and raw materials | 2 | 50% | 2 | 2 | [21] | |
Nigeria | OTA | HPLC-FLD | Animal feeds and raw materials | 5 | 100% | 12 | 12 | [21] | |
Sudan | OTA | HPLC-FLD | Animal feed and raw materials | 6 | 67% | 19 | 15 | [21] | |
South Africa | OTA | LC-MS/MS | Compounded dairy feeds | 25 | 16% | 17 | 10 | [10] | |
Zearalenone | |||||||||
Country | Mycotoxin | Test | Feed | n | Positive (%) | Max (µg/kg) | Mean (µg/kg) | Reference | |
Ghana | ZEN | HPLC-FLD | Animal feed and raw materials | 18 | 11% | 310 | 178 | [21] | |
Kenya | ZEN | HPLC-FLD | Animal feed and raw materials | 25 | 56% | 167 | 67 | [21] | |
Nigeria | ZEN | HPLC-FLD | Animal feeds and raw materials | 45 | 51% | 80 | 46 | [21] | |
South Africa | ZEN | UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS | Dairy feed | 40 | 60% | 28 | 3 | [11] | |
ZEN | LC-MS/MS | Compounded dairy feeds | 25 | 96% | 123 | 72 | [10] | ||
ZEN | HPLC-FLD | Animal feed and raw materials | 77 | 29% | 195 | 86 | [21] |
Effect | AF | DON | FUM | OTA | T-2 | ZEN |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reduced feed intake | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
Reduced milk yield | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
Reproductive effects | √ | √ | √ | √ | ||
Immunosuppression | √ | √ | ||||
Hepatotoxicity | √ | √ | ||||
Nephrotoxicity | √ | √ | ||||
Gastroenteritis | √ | √ |
Country | Test | Sample | n | Positive (%) | Above Eu Limit (%) | Max (µg/Kg) | Mean (µg/Kg) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Burundi | ELISA | Milk (fresh and yoghurt) | 16 | 100% | 0.08 | 0.03 | [38] | |
D.R. Congo | ELISA | Milk (fresh and yogurt) and cheese | 10 | 100% | 0.26 | 0.03 | [38] | |
Ethiopia | ELISA | Milk | 110 | 100% | 91.8% | 4.98 | 0.4 | [33] |
Kenya | ELISA | Milk | 96 | 100% | 66.4% | 4.63 | 0.29 | [79] |
ELISA | Milk | 291 | 51.9% | 1.1 | 0.08 | [80] | ||
ELISA | Milk | 512 | 39.7% | 10.4% | 6.9 | 0.003 | [27] | |
ELISA | Milk | 200 | 55% | 1.67 | 0.128 | [81] | ||
Nigeria | HPLC | Milk powder | 125 | 53.6% | 0.46 | [14] | ||
HPLC | Raw milk | 100 | 75% | 64% | 0.46 | 0.11 | [82] | |
Sudan | Fluorometry | Raw milk | 35 | 100% | 100% | 2.52 | 0.92 | [83] |
Imported powder milk | 12 | 0.85 | 0.29 | |||||
South Africa | ELISA | Milk | 30 | 100% | 90.6% | 0.15 | 0.09 | [7] |
Milk | 37 | 100% | 62.1% | 0.11 | 0.07 | |||
Tanzania | HPLC | Milk | 37 | 83.8% | 100 | 2.01 | [36] |
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Kemboi, D.C.; Antonissen, G.; Ochieng, P.E.; Croubels, S.; Okoth, S.; Kangethe, E.K.; Faas, J.; Lindahl, J.F.; Gathumbi, J.K. A Review of the Impact of Mycotoxins on Dairy Cattle Health: Challenges for Food Safety and Dairy Production in Sub-Saharan Africa. Toxins 2020, 12, 222. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12040222
Kemboi DC, Antonissen G, Ochieng PE, Croubels S, Okoth S, Kangethe EK, Faas J, Lindahl JF, Gathumbi JK. A Review of the Impact of Mycotoxins on Dairy Cattle Health: Challenges for Food Safety and Dairy Production in Sub-Saharan Africa. Toxins. 2020; 12(4):222. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12040222
Chicago/Turabian StyleKemboi, David Chebutia, Gunther Antonissen, Phillis E. Ochieng, Siska Croubels, Sheila Okoth, Erastus K. Kangethe, Johannes Faas, Johanna F. Lindahl, and James K. Gathumbi. 2020. "A Review of the Impact of Mycotoxins on Dairy Cattle Health: Challenges for Food Safety and Dairy Production in Sub-Saharan Africa" Toxins 12, no. 4: 222. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12040222
APA StyleKemboi, D. C., Antonissen, G., Ochieng, P. E., Croubels, S., Okoth, S., Kangethe, E. K., Faas, J., Lindahl, J. F., & Gathumbi, J. K. (2020). A Review of the Impact of Mycotoxins on Dairy Cattle Health: Challenges for Food Safety and Dairy Production in Sub-Saharan Africa. Toxins, 12(4), 222. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12040222