The Effect of an 8-Week Vegan Diet on the Nutritional Status and Performance of Semi-Professional Soccer Players—Results of the VegInSoc Study
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Participants
2.2. Study Procedure
2.2.1. Assessment of Dietary Intake and Nutritional Biomarkers
2.2.2. Anthropometric Measurements
2.2.3. Incremental Exercise Test
2.3. Data Analysis and Statistical Methods
3. Results
3.1. Dietary Intake and Nutritional Status
3.1.1. Dietary Intake
3.1.2. Nutritional Status
3.2. Anthropometrics and Exercise Performance
3.2.1. Anthropometrics
3.2.2. Exercise Performance
4. Discussion
4.1. Interpretation of Dietary Intake and Nutritional Outcomes
4.2. Interpretation of Anthropometrics and Exercise Performance
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Measure | VEG (n = 9) | CON (n = 6) | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Age (y) | 23.4 [19.9–27.9] | 24.0 [19.4–28.6] | 0.819 |
Anthropometric data | |||
BMI (kg/m2) | 24.0 [22.6–25.4] | 23.7 [23.0–24.4] | 0.699 |
REE (kcal/d) | 1787 [1710–1864] | 1793 [1697–1889] | 0.916 |
TEE (kcal/d) | 3574 [3420–3729] | 3586 [3393–3778] | 0.916 |
FFMb (kg) | 69.1 [65.0–73.3] | 68.9 [61.3–76.5] | 0.941 |
FMb (%) | 10.5 [5.87–15.2] | 14.0 [10.8–17.3] | 0.271 |
FMc (%) | 11.4 [10.0–12.8] | 13.0 [11.4–14.6] | 0.095 |
TBW (%) | 63.0 [57.8–68.3] | 62.3 [60.0–64.5] | 0.795 |
Sociodemographic data (n [%]) | VEG (n = 8) | CON (n = 3) | |
Education | 0.245 | ||
High school diploma | 6 [75] | 1 [33] | |
Technical college | 1 [12.5] | 0 [0] | |
Secondary school | 1 [12.5] | 1 [33] | |
Main school | 0 [0] | 1 [33] | |
Occupation | 0.458 | ||
Full time | 2 [25] | 2 [33] | |
Part time | 2 [25] | 1 [67] | |
In training | 1 [12.5] | 0 [0] | |
Not working | 3 [37.5] | 0 [0] | |
Tobacco Smoking | 0.521 | ||
Never | 7 [87.5] | 0 [0] | |
Occasionally | 1 [12.5] | 3 [100] | |
Daily | 0 [0] | 0 [0] | |
Alcohol Consumption | 0.782 | ||
Never | 2 [25] | 1 [33] | |
Occasionally | 6 [75] | 2 [67] | |
Daily | 0 [0] | 0 [0] |
Food Group (g) | Group | t0 Mean [95% CI] | t1 Mean [95% CI] | t2 Mean [95% CI] | Δ(t2 − t1) | Δ(t2 − t0) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vegetables | VEG | 248 [109–386] | 424 [185–663] | 216 [97.9–334] | −208 | −31.7 |
CON | 275 [38.7–511] | 143 [3.15–283] | 118 [6.86–229] | −24.8 | −157 | |
p-value | 0.992 | 0.095 | 0.404 | 0.140 | 0.176 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.150 | 1.074 | 0.722 | |||
Fruit | VEG | 363 [195–531] | 369 [197–541] | 267 [78.8–455] | −102 | −96.5 |
CON | 92.2 [−34.3–219] | 69.6 [−51.8–191] | 51.9 [−34.6–138] | −17.7 | −40.3 | |
p-value | 0.025 | 0.015 | 0.097 | 0.341 | 0.521 | |
Cohen’s d | 1.444 | 1.565 | 1.055 | |||
Grains | VEG | 414 [273–555] | 545 [348–743] | 441 [310–572] | −105 | +27.1 |
CON | 349 [113–584] | 417 [212–622] | 396 [207–584] | −21.3 | +47.4 | |
p-value | 0.908 | 0.626 | 0.946 | 0.542 | 0.868 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.353 | 0.557 | 0.275 | |||
Potatoes | VEG | 105 [37.9–173] | 60.2 [6.84–114] | 76.9 [28.1–126] | +16.7 | −28.5 |
CON | 114 [40.4–187] | 133 [–33.8–300] | 92.3 [−71.8–256] | −40.6 | −21.3 | |
p-value | 0.996 | 0.669 | 0.994 | 0.278 | 0.918 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.104 | 0.756 | 0.166 | |||
Legumes | VEG | 29.4 [−16.2–74.9] | 40.4 [2.66–78.2] | 45.8 [−3.96–95.6] | +5.37 * | +16.5 |
CON | 0 [0–0] | 4.54 [−8.07–17.2] | 0 [0–0] | −4.54 | 0 | |
p-value | 0.439 | 0.178 | 0.187 | 0.796 | 0.713 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.607 | 0.885 | 0.866 | |||
Nuts | VEG | 41.2 [−25.0–107] | 26.2 [8.44–44.0] | 43.1 [18.0–68.2] | +16.9 * | +1.91 |
CON | 4.32 [−3.87–12.5] | 0 [0–0] | 2.73 [−4.84–10.3] | +2.73 | −1.59 | |
p-value | 0.555 | 0.028 | 0.017 | 0.058 | 0.929 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.523 | 1.388 | 1.503 | |||
Plant-based spreads | VEG | 6.37 [−1.68–14.4] | 4.00 [−0.95–8.95] | 11.4 [−0.52–23.4] | +5.07 | +7.44 |
CON | 0 [0–0] | 0 [0–0] | 0 [0–0] | 0 | 0 | |
p-value | 0.284 | 0.269 | 0.166 | 0.409 | 0.544 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.746 | 0.761 | 0.901 | |||
Oils and fats | VEG | 19.3 [1.23–37.4] | 23.8 [4.65–42.9] | 29.9 [16.7–43.1] | +6.09 | +21.0 |
CON | 19.2 [−3.27–41.8] | 14.7 [−4.08–33.4] | 23.4 [5.23–41.6] | +8.74 | +4.15 | |
p-value | >0.999 | 0.795 | 0.854 | 0.819 | 0.528 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.003 | 0.413 | 0.396 | |||
Beverages | VEG | 3260 [2217–4304] | 2691 [1904–3479] | 3113 [2580–3646] | +422 | −147 |
CON | 2098 [403–3793] | 2504 [919–4088] | 2235 [137–4333] | −267 | +137 | |
p-value | 0.414 | 0.990 | 0.685 | 0.159 | 0.622 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.855 | 0.168 | 0.779 | |||
Milk and milk products | VEG | 81.4 [28.2–135] | 0 [0–0] | 0 [0–0] | 0 | −81.4 * |
CON | 290 [237–343] | 221 [31.7–410] | 181 [4.72–357] | −40.0 | −109 | |
p-value | <0.001 | 0.092 | 0.133 | 0.367 | 0.573 | |
Cohen’s d | 3.379 | 2.511 | 2.208 | |||
Milk alternatives | VEG | 128 [16.8–239] | 255 [51.4–459] | 229 [25.3–433] | −25.6 | +102 |
CON | 62.1 [−110–234] | 80.9 [−93.5–255] | 31.1 [−55.2–117] | −49.8 | −31.0 | |
p-value | 0.811 | 0.351 | 0.173 | 0.890 | 0.100 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.461 | 0.754 | 0.900 | |||
Meat | VEG | 119 [28.9–209] | 0 [0–0] | 0 [0–0] | 0 | −119 * |
CON | 110 [24.4–196] | 268 [48.9–487] | 263 [134–391] | −5.61 | +152 | |
p-value | 0.998 | 0.080 | 0.014 | 0.857 | 0.002 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.084 | 2.631 | 4.378 | |||
Fish | VEG | 31.4 [−8.84–71.7] | 0 [0–0] | 0 [0–0] | 0 | −31.4 |
CON | 37.3 [−30.0–105] | 33.5 [−23.4–90.3] | 0 [0–0] | −33.4 | −37.3 | |
p-value | 0.997 | 0.444 | – | 0.043 | 0.846 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.111 | 1.265 | n.c. 1 | |||
Eggs | VEG | 28.6 [4.43–52.7] | 0 [0–0] | 0 [0–0] | 0 | −28.6 |
CON | 36.9 [−15.6–89.5] | 21.7 [−35.4–78.9] | 26.7 [−29.7–83.1] | +4.93 | −10.3 | |
p-value | 0.976 | 0.726 | 0.594 | 0.820 | 0.486 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.237 | 0.818 | 1.017 | |||
Meat alternatives | VEG | 13.3 [−13.3–39.9] | 42.0 [5.20–78.8] | 83.4 [16.3–151] | +41.4 | +70.1 |
CON | 2.12 [−3.77–8.02] | 5.72 [−4.01–15.5] | 7.55 [−5.62–20.7] | +1.83 | +5.43 | |
p-value | 0.003 | 0.006 | 0.004 | 0.259 | 0.126 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.393 | 0.922 | 1.059 | |||
Convenience meals | VEG | 63.0 [0.566–126] | 53.0 [3.86–102] | 160 [32.6–287] | +107 | +96.8 |
CON | 50.8 [−14.0–116] | 50.6 [−37.8–139] | 89.8 [−52.4–232] | +39.1 | +39.0 | |
p-value | 0.982 | >0.999 | 0.752 | 0.413 | 0.512 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.168 | 0.036 | 0.466 | |||
Sweets | VEG | 30.1 [3.24–56.9] | 52.0 [9.49–94.5] | 29.5 [6.50–52.5] | −22.5 | −0.57 |
CON | 95.8 [4.40–187] | 86.1 [−16.2–188] | 42.5 [11.0–74.0] | −43.6 | −53.3 | |
p-value | 0.315 | 0.824 | 0.795 | 0.553 | 0.119 | |
Cohen’s d | 1.284 | 0.520 | 0.456 | |||
Other | VEG | 19.8 [−8.07–47.6] | 26.8 [−1.84–55.4] | 22.7 [−5.22–50.5] | −4.12 | +2.89 |
CON | 84.5 [−23.3–192] | 48.7 [−46.7–144] | 51.9 [−41.6–145] | +3.24 | −32.6 | |
p-value | 0.438 | 0.923 | 0.834 | 0.364 | 0.176 | |
Cohen’s d | 1.112 | 0.407 | 0.556 |
Measure and Reference Value | Group | t0 Mean [95% CI] | t1 Mean [95% CI] | t2 Mean [95% CI] | Δ(t2 − t1) | Δ(t2 − t0) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Energy (kcal) | VEG | 2488 [1879–3096] | 2507 [1846–3167] | 2684 [2022–3346] | +177 | +196 |
3000–3100 a | CON | 2583 [2007–3160] | 2842 [1591–4092] | 2606 [1330–3882] | −236 | +22.8 |
p-value | 0.990 | 0.908 | 0.999 | 0.094 | 0.614 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.137 | 0.368 | 0.085 | |||
Macronutrients | ||||||
Carbohydrates (En%) | VEG | 48.0 [44.2–51.8] | 49.2 [44.9–53.5] | 46.2 [40.3–52.2] | −2.98 | −1.74 |
>50 | CON | 43.4 [35.1–51.7] | 39.5 [32.1–41.1] | 37.6 [34.1–41.1] | −1.92 | −5.78 |
p-value | 0.531 | 0.054 | 0.036 | 0.756 | 0.320 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.822 | 1.682 | 1.321 | |||
Fat (En%) | VEG | 32.2 [28.1–36.3] | 33.7 [28.5–38.9] | 36.6 [30.2–42.9] | +2.85 | +4.36 |
30 | CON | 35.2 [27.8–42.6] | 37.0 [28.1–45.9] | 40.1 [35.8–44.3] | +3.04 | +4.87 |
p-value | 0.763 | 0.811 | 0.644 | 0.965 | 0.890 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.535 | 0.476 | 0.496 | |||
EPA (mg) | VEG | 72.1 [12.1–132] | 30.1 [−33.7–93.8] | 1.79 [0.29–3.30] | −28.3 | −70.3 |
CON | 438 [−316–1192] | 185 [14.4–355] | 34.0 [13.7–54.3] | −151 | −404 | |
p-value | 0.578 | 0.179 | 0.034 | 0.067 | 0.124 | |
Cohen’s d | 1.027 | 1.485 | 3.371 | |||
DHA (mg) | VEG | 170 [29.2–311] | 42.6 [−25.6–111] | 9.19 [−6.28–24.7] | −33.4 | −161 |
CON | 671 [−288–1632] | 235 [−62.5–533] | 40.8 [−1.79–83.4] | −194 | −630 | |
p-value | 0.529 | 0.383 | 0.299 | 0.097 | 0.089 | |
Cohen’s d | 1.066 | 1.232 | 1.228 | |||
Protein (g/kg BW) | VEG | 1.26 [0.99–1.53] | 1.00 [0.71–1.29] | 1.13 [0.81–1.44] | +0.13 | −0.14 |
0.8 | CON | 1.48 [1.19–1.78] | 1.85 [0.93–2.77] | 1.68 [0.81–2.55] | −0.18 | +0.20 |
p-value | 0.791 | 0.007 | 0.119 | 0.038 | 0.117 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.690 | 1.614 | 1.052 | |||
Fiber (g) | VEG | 36.7 [21.8–51.5] | 51.1 [36.2–65.9] | 53.3 [38.6–68.0] | +2.27 | +16.7 ** |
≥30 | CON | 28.0 [17.9–38.9] | 32.6 [17.1–48.3] | 25.4 [4.53–46.4] | −7.18 | −2.51 |
p-value | 0.602 | 0.151 | 0.057 | 0.154 | 0.003 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.526 | 1.060 | 1.513 | |||
Vitamins | ||||||
A (RE, μg) | VEG | 1139 [461–1817] | 1167 [415–1919] | 1480 [748–2212] | +313 | +341 |
850 | CON | 1245 [643–1846] | 962 [412–1512] | 1188 [860–1517] | +226 | −56.3 |
p-value | 0.989 | 0.937 | 0.794 | 0.882 | 0.423 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.137 | 0.244 | 0.368 | |||
D (μg) | VEG | 12.3 [−9.11–33.8] | 6.23 [−1.30–13.8] | 13.6 [−7.64–13.8] | +7.41 | +1.31 |
20 | CON | 5.15 [−0.54–10.8] | 16.4 [−10.4–43.2] | 18.1 [−14.0–50.1] | +1.66 | +12.9 |
p-value | 0.852 | 0.744 | 0.988 | 0.748 | 0.360 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.313 | 0.686 | 0.163 | |||
E (mg) | VEG | 20.0 [9.92–30.2] | 29.9 [17.3–45.5] | 32.5 [18.1–46.8] | +2.55 | +12.4 |
15 | CON | 17.7 [9.46–26.0] | 24.7 [11.0–38.5] | 20.6 [0.72–40.4] | −4.16 | +2.82 |
p-value | 0.965 | 0.873 | 0.560 | 0.142 | 0.211 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.201 | 0.349 | 0.668 | |||
K (μg) | VEG | 157 [95.1–219] | 172 [100–244] | 218 [148–288] | +45.6 | +60.5 |
70 | CON | 178 [−22.1–377] | 189 [29.5–348] | 116 [4.28–227] | −73.2 | −62.0 |
p-value | 0.992 | 0.993 | 0.207 | 0.081 | 0.075 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.178 | 0.156 | 1.130 | |||
B1 (mg) | VEG | 2.20 [1.13–3.27] | 2.13 [0.97–3.28] | 2.45 [1.40–3.50] | +0.32 | +0.25 |
1.2–1.3 | CON | 1.76 [0.78–2.73] | 3.15 [0.35–5.95] | 2.58 [−0.13–5.30] | −0.57 | +0.83 |
p-value | 0.842 | 0.781 | 0.999 | 0.174 | 0.335 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.364 | 0.573 | 0.080 | |||
B2 (mg) | VEG | 1.83 [1.00–2.67] | 1.78 [0.77–2.79] | 1.56 [0.66–2.45] | −0.23 | −0.28 |
1.4 | CON | 2.42 [1.34–3.50] | 3.38 [0.32–6.43] | 2.73 [−0.37–5.83] | −0.65 | +0.31 |
p-value | 0.650 | 0.547 | 0.745 | 0.404 | 0.493 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.577 | 0.896 | 0.682 | |||
Niacin (mg) | VEG | 35.2 [30.3–40.1] | 30.2 [20.3–40.1] | 25.0 [17.8–32.1] | −5.26 | −10.3 * |
15–16 | CON | 42.9 [31.8–54.1] | 55.0 [23.5–86.5] | 50.5 [21.2–79.9] | −4.50 | +7.56 |
p-value | 0.361 | 0.258 | 0.199 | 0.896 | 0.075 | |
Cohen’s d | 1.050 | 1.376 | 1.637 | |||
Pantothenic acid (mg) | VEG | 7.19 [4.00–10.4] | 7.09 [2.96–11.2] | 6.29 [3.07–9.51] | −0.80 | −0.90 |
5 | CON | 8.93 [3.73–14.1] | 12.0 [0.41–24.4] | 10.2 [−2.51–22.9] | −1.82 | +1.24 |
p-value | 0.858 | 0.728 | 0.839 | 0.600 | 0.414 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.415 | 0.677 | 0.569 | |||
B6 (mg) | VEG | 2.53 [158–3.47] | 1.98 [1.27–2.69] | 2.25 [1.72–2.79] | +0.27 | −0.28 |
1.6 | CON | 2.39 [1.22–3.56] | 3.66 [0.56–6.76] | 3.29 [−0.09–6.66] | −0.38 | +0.90 |
p-value | 0.994 | 0.508 | 0.831 | 0.325 | 0.180 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.120 | 1.033 | 0.621 | |||
Biotin (μg) | VEG | 66.4 [46.1–86.7] | 70.0 [44.1–95.9] | 70.7 [50.7–90.8] | +0.74 | +4.36 |
40 | CON | 82.3 [45.3–119] | 72.3 [−3.48–148] | 68.5 [−15.0–152] | −3.76 | −13.7 |
p-value | 0.727 | >0.999 | >0.999 | 0.684 | 0.448 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.575 | 0.051 | 0.050 | |||
Folic acid (μg) | VEG | 415 [258–572] | 401 [282–521] | 363 [221–505] | −38.1 | −51.5 |
300 | CON | 413 [178–648] | 378 [139–617] | 276 [−6.51–559] | −102 | −137 |
p-value | >0.999 | 0.994 | 0.866 | 0.408 | 0.303 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.007 | 0.139 | 0.436 | |||
B12 (μg) | VEG | 23.6 [−19.2–66.3] | 83.9 [−52.3–220] | 84.0 [−51.9–220] | +0.21 | +60.4 |
4.0 | CON | 6.80 [2.93–10.7] | 75.9 [−119–271] | 8.81 [0.25–17.4] | −67.1 | +2.01 |
p-value | 0.776 | >0.999 | 0.558 | 0.377 | 0.220 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.369 | 0.046 | 0.521 | |||
C (mg) | VEG | 213 [85.2–341] | 278 [123–433] | 199 [90.5–307] | −78.9 | −14.4 |
110 | CON | 362 [−246–970] | 290 [−255–834] | 327 [−339–993] | +37.2 | −35.2 |
p-value | 0.904 | >0.999 | 0.948 | 0.054 | 0.680 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.474 | 0.039 | 0.387 | |||
Minerals | ||||||
K (g) | VEG | 3.63 [2.60–4.65] | 4.02 [2.65–5.38] | 4.05 [2.84–5.26] | +0.04 | +0.42 |
4.0 | CON | 3.65 [2.96–4.34] | 3.68 [1.77–5.59] | 3.21 [1.30–5.11] | −0.48 | −0.44 |
p-value | >0.999 | 0.978 | 0.730 | 0.320 | 0.068 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.019 | 0.196 | 0.543 | |||
Ca (mg) | VEG | 1009 [715–1303] | 964 [686–1242] | 907 [602–1212] | −56.8 | −102 |
1000–1200 | CON | 1294 [866–1722] | 1385 [557–2213] | 1281 [427–2134] | −104 | −13.2 |
p-value | 0.463 | 0.568 | 0.672 | 0.885 | 0.639 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.770 | 0.867 | 0.729 | |||
Mg (mg) | VEG | 544 [355–732] | 745 [472–1019] | 741 [492–990] | −4.12 | +198 |
350 | CON | 545 [321–770] | 581 [248–914] | 486 [103–868] | −95.6 | −59.7 |
p-value | >0.999 | 0.728 | 0.447 | 0.450 | 0.055 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.007 | 0.499 | 0.802 | |||
Fe (mg) | VEG | 18.4 [10.7–26.2] | 28.7 [14.5–42.8] | 27.5 [15.9–30.1] | −1.18 | +9.07 |
11 | CON | 15.9 [11.1–20.7] | 21.0 [11.4–30.7] | 16.8 [5.15–28.5] | −4.21 | +0.94 |
p-value | 0.885 | 0.658 | 0.340 | 0.369 | 0.248 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.299 | 0.487 | 0.795 | |||
Zn (mg) | VEG | 14.3 [9.31–19.2] | 13.1 [7.13–19.0] | 13.8 [8.54–19.0] | +0.72 | −0.48 |
14 b | CON | 14.2 [9.46–19.0] | 21.1 [6.02–36.2] | 19.2 [5.81–32.7] | −1.88 | +5.00 |
p-value | >0.999 | 0.544 | 0.722 | 0.205 | 0.181 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.004 | 0.855 | 0.653 | |||
I (μg) | VEG | 104 [60.3–147] | 86.5 [61.6–111] | 85.4 [47.8–123] | −1.01 | −18.1 |
200 | CON | 154 [53.4–254] | 174 [62.3–287] | 126 [−3.63–255] | −48.9 | −28.2 |
p-value | 0.599 | 0.257 | 0.837 | 0.179 | 0.785 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.765 | 1.505 | 0.555 |
Parameter and Upper/Lower Reference Value | Group | t0 Mean [95% CI] | t1 Mean [95% CI] | t2 Mean [95% CI] | Δ(t2 − t1) | Δ(t2 − t0) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total cholesterol (mmol/L) <5.17 mmol/L | VEG | 3.77 [3.30–4.24] | 3.83 [3.40–4.26] | 3.41 [2.95–3.87] | −0.42 | −0.36 * |
CON | 4.33 [3.26–5.39] | 4.58 [3.29–5.88] | 4.46 [3.57–5.35] | −0.13 | +0.13 | |
p-value | 0.605 | 0.500 | 0.087 | 0.370 | 0.021 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.702 | 0.858 | 1.485 | |||
HDL cholesterol (mmol/L) >1.55 mmol/L | VEG | 1.49 [1.33–1.65] | 1.44 [1.30–1.58] | 1.42 [1.22–1.62] | −0.02 | −0.07 |
CON | 1.48 [1.15–1.81] | 1.55 [1.15–1.96] | 1.54 [1.07–2.01] | −0.02 | +0.06 | |
p-value | 0.999 | 0.889 | 0.930 | 0.500 | 0.092 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.068 | 0.412 | 0.333 | |||
LDL cholesterol (mmol/L) <2.97 mmol/L | VEG | 2.16 [1.63–2.68] | 2.22 [1.64–2.81] | 1.94 [1.48–2.40] | −0.28 | −0.21 |
CON | 2.71 [1.70–3.71] | 2.84 [1.78–3.91] | 2.57 [1.75–3.39] | −0.27 | −0.13 | |
p-value | 0.589 | 0.558 | 0.339 | 0.476 | 0.336 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.689 | 0.708 | 0.935 | |||
Triglycerides (mmol/L) <1.70 mmol/L | VEG | 0.58 [0.47–0.69] | 0.70 [0.60–0.80] | 0.67 [0.31–1.03] | −0.03 | +0.09 |
CON | 0.80 [0.57–1.02] | 1.15 [0.90–1.41] | 1.95 [−0.16–4.05] | +0.79 | +1.15 | |
p-value | 0.188 | 0.013 | 0.457 | 0.360 | 0.114 | |
Cohen’s d | 1.219 | 2.537 | 0.980 |
Parameter and Lab Reference Range | Group | t0 Mean [95% CI] | t1 Mean [95% CI] | t2 Mean [95% CI] | Δ(t2 − t1) | Δ(t2 − t0) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hemoglobin (mmol/L) 8.34–10.7 mmol/L | VEG | 8.98 [8.51–9.47] | 8.96 [8.46–9.46] | 9.13 [8.55–9.71] | +0.17 | +0.15 |
CON | 9.07 [8.93–9.21] | 9.23 [8.73–9.73] | 9.22 [8.99–9.44] | +0.01 | +0.15 | |
p-value | 0.972 | 0.752 | 0.985 | 0.421 | > 0.999 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.174 | 0.458 | 0.143 | |||
Ferritin (pmol/L) 33.7–674 pmol/L | VEG | 155 [114–197] | 143 [96.0–189] | 133 [92.5–189] | −9.23 | −22.0 |
CON | 220 [137–303] | 183 [97.8–268] | 177 [124–230] | −5.33 | −42.9 | |
p-value | 0.309 | 0.698 | 0.350 | 0.899 | 0.453 | |
Cohen’s d | 1.005 | 0.579 | 0.842 | |||
Magnesium (mmol/L) 0.73–1.06 mmol/L | VEG | 0.88 [0.81–0.95] | 0.95 [0.89–1.01] | 0.88 [0.81–0.95] | −0.07 | +0.00 |
CON | 0.90 [0.81–0.99] | 1.00 [0.90–1.10] | 0.85 [0.81–0.90] | −0.15 | −0.05 | |
p-value | 0.960 | 0.601 | 0.838 | 0.254 | 0.361 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.232 | 0.658 | 0.353 | |||
β–Carotene (μmol/L) 1.86–15.8 μmol/L | VEG | 6.68 [3.13–10.3] | 6.70 [4.07–9.32] | 7.16 [3.54–10.8] | +0.46 | +0.47 |
CON | 5.35 [3.32–7.38] | 5.96 [3.49–8.43] | 5.41 [3.63–7.19] | −0.55 | +0.06 | |
p-value | 0.838 | 0.950 | 0.698 | 0.257 | 0.619 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.351 | 0.658 | 0.353 | |||
Vitamin E (µmol/L) 17.6–53.6 µmol/L | VEG | 24.6 [23.2–25.9] | 23.4 [21.9–25.0] | 23.2 [20.7–25.9] | −0.14 | −1.25 |
CON | 29.7 [25.9–33.3] | 29.5 [23.7–35.2] | 31.3 [24.4–38.3] | +1.86 | +1.74 | |
p-value | 0.044 | 0.120 | 0.086 | 0.444 | 0.294 | |
Cohen’s d | 1.962 | 1.615 | 1.650 | |||
Folic acid (nmol/L) 7.02–46.4 nmol/L | VEG | 18.4 [12.9–23.8] | 19.9 [13.8–26.1] | 23.6 [15.1–32.1] | +3.65 | +5.23 |
CON | 21.2 [13.6–28.8] | 23.5 [15.7–31.4] | 20.2 [8.97–31.3] | −3.40 | −1.07 | |
p-value | 0.848 | 0.775 | 0.916 | 0.125 | 0.110 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.271 | 0.618 | 0.834 | |||
Zinc (μmol/L) 68.8–115 μmol/L | VEG | 82.5 [76.8–88.1] | 78.9 [72.7–85.0] | 83.3 [76.8–89.8] | +4.44 | +0.92 |
CON | 85.9 [75.2–96.6] | 94.8 [70.1–120] | 87.4 [76.5–98.4] | −7.34 | +1.53 | |
p-value | 0.868 | 0.413 | 0.821 | 0.114 | 0.836 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.407 | 1.005 | 0.448 | |||
Vitamin B2 (nmol/L) 364–983 nmol/L | VEG | 501 [358–644] | 526 [439–612] | 518 [461–575] | −7.89 | +16.8 |
CON | 553 [327–778] | 579 [502–654] | 580 [459–701] | +1.99 | +27.4 | |
p–value | 0.953 | 0.628 | 0.529 | 0.028 | 0.147 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.271 | 0.618 | 0.834 | |||
Vitamin A (μmol/L) 1.07–3.21 μmol /L | VEG | 1.89 [1.71–2.06] | 1.69 [1.38–2.00] | 1.98 [1.82–2.15] | +0.29 * | +0.11 |
CON | 2.16 [1.80–2.52] | 2.01 [1.65–2.38] | 2.32 [2.01–2.64] | +0.32 | +0.18 | |
p-value | 0.330 | 0.332 | 0.120 | 0.913 | 0.595 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.982 | 0.841 | 1.359 | |||
Vitamin D (nmol/L) 75–250 nmol/L | VEG | 106 [76.3–135] | 112 [79.4–144] | 110 [84.1–136] | −1.68 | +4.17 |
CON | 110 [67.7–153] | 111 [64.3–157] | 92.4 [67.0–118] | −18.3 | −17.9 | |
p-value | 0.995 | >0.999 | 0.599 | 0.108 | 0.014 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.117 | 0.019 | 0.577 |
Measure | Group | t0 Mean [95% CI] | t1 Mean [95% CI] | t2 Mean [95% CI] | Δ(t2 − t1) | Δ(t2 − t0) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Body weight (kg) | VEG | 77.7 [71.0–84.3] | 77.7 [71.2–84.3] | 75.8 [69.7–81.8] | −1.94 ** | −1.87 |
CON | 80.1 [72.2–88.0] | 80.0 [72.3–87.6] | 79.6 [71.7–87.6] | −0.37 | −0.48 | |
p-value | 0.923 | 0.932 | 0.741 | 0.028 | 0.120 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.295 | 0.281 | 0.496 | |||
FFMb (kg) | VEG | 69.1 [65.0–73.3] | 69.3 [64.6–74.0] | 67.3 [63.0–71.6] | −2.02 * | −1.85 |
CON | 68.9 [61.3–76.5] | 69.2 [62.1–76.3] | 68.3 [60.7–75.9] | −0.89 | −0.59 | |
p-value | >0.999 | >0.999 | 0.989 | 0.144 | 0.230 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.037 | 0.017 | 0.153 | |||
FFMb (%) | VEG | 89.5 [84.8–94.1] | 89.5 [85.8–93.1] | 89.1 [85.7–92.5] | −0.40 | −0.42 |
CON | 86.0 [82.7–89.2] | 86.4 [83.2–89.6] | 85.8 [82.5–89.0] | −0.68 | −0.22 | |
p-value | 0.420 | 0.403 | 0.297 | 0.731 | 0.835 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.685 | 0.723 | 0.836 | |||
FMb (%) | VEG | 10.5 [5.87–15.2] | 10.5 [6.89–14.2] | 10.9 [7.54–14.4] | +0.40 | +0.42 |
CON | 14.0 [10.8–17.3] | 13.6 [10.4–16.8] | 14.3 [11.0–17.5] | +0.68 | +0.22 | |
p-value | 0.420 | 0.403 | 0.297 | 0.731 | 0.835 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.606 | 0.659 | 0.840 | |||
FMc (%) | VEG | 11.4 [10.0–12.8] | 11.4 [9.77–13.0] | 10.8 [9.20–12.4] | −0.61 | −0.62 |
CON | 13.0 [11.4–14.6] | 12.9 [11.9–13.9] | 12.6 [11.4–13.8] | −0.27 | −0.38 | |
p-value | 0.235 | 0.244 | 0.131 | 0.345 | 0.642 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.948 | 0.849 | 1.043 | |||
HRrest (bpm) | VEG | 81.6 [73.9–89.3] | 63.3 [52.5–74.1] | 66.1 [54.8–77.5] | +2.86 | −15.4 * |
CON | 73.6 [57.0–90.2] | 70.8 [60.1–81.5] | 69.0 [50.5–87.5] | −1.80 | −4.60 | |
p-value | 0.628 | 0.543 | 0.981 | 0.380 | 0.080 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.751 | 0.710 | 0.213 | |||
HRmax (bpm) | VEG | 189 [181–197] | 183 ± [180–186] | 185 [178–193] | +2.71 | −3.86 |
CON | 188 [177–199] | 183 [171–194] | 181 [170–192] | −1.70 | −7.00 | |
p-value | 0.992 | >0.999 | 0.779 | 0.248 | 0.591 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.152 | 0.014 | 0.540 | |||
LacIAT (mmol/L) | VEG | 3.09 [2.65–3.52] | 2.65 [2.24–3.07] | 2.45 [2.12–2.79] | −0.19 | −0.63 |
CON | 2.41 [2.00–2.83] | 2.32 [1.75–2.90] | 2.33 [2.01–2.66] | +0.01 | −0.08 | |
p-value | 0.049 | 0.598 | 0.885 | 0.292 | 0.071 | |
Cohen’s d | 1.582 | 0.703 | 0.373 | |||
Lacmax (mmol/L) | VEG | 10.5 [9.34–11.7] | 8.63 [5.85–11.4] | 9.25 [6.73–11.8] | +0.61 | −1.27 |
CON | 8.04 [6.25–9.83] | 5.31 [3.60–7.02] | 6.67 [3.66–9.69] | +1.37 | −1.36 | |
p-value | 0.045 | 0.089 | 0.315 | 0.590 | 0.957 | |
Cohen’s d | 1.851 | 1.336 | 0.986 | |||
vIAT (km/h) | VEG | 13.2 [12.5–18.9] | 12.9 [12.1–13.6] | 14.1 [13.5–14.7] | +1.21 * | +0.87 ** |
CON | 13.6 [12.7–14.6] | 13.2 [12.1–14.3] | 14.6 [13.3–15.9] | +1.42 | +0.98 * | |
p-value | 0.720 | 0.900 | 0.726 | 0.728 | 0.726 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.594 | 0.382 | 0.641 | |||
vmax (km/h) | VEG | 17.5 [16.6–18.4] | 16.9 [15.1–17.3] | 18.1 [17.4–18.8] | +1.88 * | +0.59 |
CON | 16.6 [15.9–17.4] | 15.4 [14.2–16.7] | 17.1 [15.8–18.3] | +1.67 | +0.42 | |
p-value | 0.247 | 0.572 | 0.275 | 0.784 | 0.810 | |
Cohen’s d | 1.020 | 0.701 | 1.159 | |||
Absolute VO2max (mL/min) | VEG | 4407 [3894–4920] | 4226 [3731–4721] | 4346 [3876–4816] | +120 | −61.4 |
CON | 4542 [3980–5104] | 4160 [3474–4846] | 4176 [3615–4737] | +16.0 | −366 | |
p-value | 0.959 | 0.996 | 0.913 | 0.563 | 0.103 | |
Cohen’s d | 0.261 | 0.121 | 0.349 |
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Nebl, J.; Bruns, P.; Meier, M.; Mayer, F.; Smollich, M.; Keller, M. The Effect of an 8-Week Vegan Diet on the Nutritional Status and Performance of Semi-Professional Soccer Players—Results of the VegInSoc Study. Nutrients 2025, 17, 2351. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17142351
Nebl J, Bruns P, Meier M, Mayer F, Smollich M, Keller M. The Effect of an 8-Week Vegan Diet on the Nutritional Status and Performance of Semi-Professional Soccer Players—Results of the VegInSoc Study. Nutrients. 2025; 17(14):2351. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17142351
Chicago/Turabian StyleNebl, Josefine, Pauline Bruns, Meike Meier, Frank Mayer, Martin Smollich, and Markus Keller. 2025. "The Effect of an 8-Week Vegan Diet on the Nutritional Status and Performance of Semi-Professional Soccer Players—Results of the VegInSoc Study" Nutrients 17, no. 14: 2351. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17142351
APA StyleNebl, J., Bruns, P., Meier, M., Mayer, F., Smollich, M., & Keller, M. (2025). The Effect of an 8-Week Vegan Diet on the Nutritional Status and Performance of Semi-Professional Soccer Players—Results of the VegInSoc Study. Nutrients, 17(14), 2351. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17142351