Exploring Residents’ Perceptions of Offshore Wind Farms in Western Australia: A Qualitative Investigation

Abstract

Residents’ attitudes towards offshore wind farms have been researched extensively over the past few decades. In this research, the precept that offshore wind farms influence residents’ well-being is implicit. Only a few studies have directly examined residents’ knowledge, perceived benefits, and acceptance. This study attempts to go beyond attitude-based research and explicitly examines factors influencing acceptance decision-making. The data for this qualitative study was collected through face-to-face interviews at a proposed offshore wind farm site in Perth, Western Australia. Results from the study suggest that offshore wind farms are not perceived or responded to uniformly by residents. This study provides a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics and complexities behind identifying and explaining how residents of designated communities perceive offshore wind farms in a nuanced manner. Therefore, this study proffers significant theoretical discussions and practical implications regarding developing sustainable renewable energy alternatives in cities across Australia.

1. Introduction

1.1. Background

Human-induced climate change is recognized worldwide as a significant threat to life on Earth. In Australia, bushfires in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory in 2020 burned large tracts of forest, whilst flooding in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania in 2022 destroyed thousands of homes and businesses [1,2]. These devastating events have necessitated the change in the energy model, moving from a development based on non-renewable to renewable energy sources. Adding to this, there is an urgent need for a profound shift in global energy systems, including a substantial expansion of renewable energy capacity, in response to growing energy demand and the negative effects of fossil fuel use. To many residents in these regions, the shift is considered a key factor to reducing climate change and reaching a just energy transition across the globe. However, the transition across the globe has not been a straightforward as the scaling up of renewables is not just a matter of technical or economic feasibility, but also of social acceptance.

Based on emerging themes in the stream of literature on energy projects, social dimension has become a factor of equal importance to technology in the renewable energy space, particularly wind farms implementation [3,4]. Evidence in the literature shows that the success of offshore renewable energy projects depends on the willingness and perceptions of residents in relation to potential benefits and impacts [5,6]. Consumers’ environmental awareness increases demand for renewable energy sources, and renewable energy infrastructure will need to be significantly expanded to satisfy the rising demand for cleaner energy [7,8,9]. Such expansion of renewables could be critically constrained however, without social acceptance of visual changes to land and seascapes. Studies by Wüstenhagen, Wolsink [10] and Scovell [11] assert that social acceptance is a key factor in wind energy technology development but has been largely ignored. Globally, climate change science, technical innovation and political momentum are driving the development of renewable energy sources. In 2023, global wind power capacity reached one Terawatt, offsetting more than 1.4 billion tonnes of CO₂ annually [12]. The global offshore wind sector has expanded rapidly, and offshore wind farms have been installed in over nineteen countries, led by China, the United Kingdom, and Germany. In Australia, there is a high risk of social conflict associated with the implementation of wind power projects, given concerns about human rights, justice and equity, benefit-sharing, conflicts over land use and legitimacy of consultation processes. Second, the lack of academic literature on awareness levels and experience-based perceptions of offshore wind projects in Australia constitutes a significant gap in this research field. In this context, it is vital to understand the impact of wind energy expansion on the daily lives and livelihoods of people whose daily lives and livelihoods would be affected far beyond the techno-economic factors. The main objective of this study is to analyze resident’s perceptions of the socio-economic impacts of offshore wind farms in Western Australia (WA), and to identify which factors may contribute to acceptance of offshore wind infrastructure. The novelty of this approach is its focus on the perceptions of residents with no current experience of offshore wind farms.

This paper makes three key contributions to the body of knowledge in relation to offshore wind farm development. Firstly, the study offers a set of relevant indicators necessary for understanding residents’ perceptions towards offshore wind infrastructure. Adding to this, such relevant indicators may offer terminal entry knowledge for developing tools and models necessary for assessing residents’ perceptions of knowledge levels, perceived benefits, and influencing factors of offshore wind farm acceptance. Thus, the study outcome can enrich the stream of literature aimed at improving knowledge on factors influencing residents’ energy decisions. Secondly, the study contributes to policy development by assisting government agencies and practitioners in identifying the causes of residents’ aversion to proposed wind power projects and in addressing each cause individually. The indicators identified in the study further highlight the importance of garnering social support for the fledgling offshore wind industry in Australia. These indicators were derived from interviews with residents comprising questions based on the Knowledge–Attitude–Behaviour model and the Theory of Planned Behaviour. The same indicators may additionally assist with the development of a framework for involving local communities in coastal wind farm projects where WA has yet to establish such a regulatory framework. Thirdly, the indicators identified via the study offer guidance on the sustainable development of offshore wind farm projects based on social, environmental and economic impacts. Identified indicators may enhance theories and models in the field of new technology adoption, and, in particular, social acceptance in relation to onshore and offshore wind farms at the individual resident level, given that such indicators may be applicable in other regions of Australia and the world.

The remainder of this paper is structured as follows: Section 2 presents materials and methods of the interview process including participant recruitment. Section 3 presents the study findings, and Section 4 discusses the findings and identifies limitations. Finally, the conclusion and future research directions present the study’s contribution and future research avenues.

1.2. Literature Review

1.2.1. Acceptance of Offshore Wind Farms: A Global Overview

Human energy consumption is predicted to increase significantly due to increased population, development of infrastructure and improvements in living standards across the globe [13]. High energy demand increases the market price of energy [14]. Fossil fuels, including coal, oil and gas, still dominate global energy production and significantly contribute to climate change, accounting for 90% of global CO₂ equivalent emissions [15]. Climate change is global and affects everyone via alterations in weather patterns, pollution of the atmosphere and other adverse impacts on the environment. To achieve independence from fossil fuels, a transition to low-carbon energy production is necessary. Climate change, science, technical innovation and political momentum are driving the transition from fossil fuels to wind and solar power. In 2021, global solar power generation increased by 22% to 179-Terawatt hours [16]. In 2023, installed wind power capacity reached 1021 gigawatts, an increase of 13% from 2022 [17]. Despite high initial capital investment, the global offshore wind sector has expanded rapidly, with a planned installed capacity of 380 gigawatts by 2030 [18,19].

To date, the geographical scope of studies includes countries with existing offshore wind infrastructure such as Germany, Denmark, the United Kingdom (UK) and USA. Current knowledge is therefore based almost entirely on international studies and findings. Studies of attitudes to offshore wind farms in European countries have revealed public concerns about the visual impact of large turbines installed in coastal locations [20,21]. For example, despite high tolerance for wind energy projects in the Netherlands, social acceptance is still a barrier [22]. In the USA, a survey conducted in Cape Cod, the majority of the 504 respondents expressed opposition to offshore wind development, and the word ‘aesthetics’ was frequently cited as a key decision factor [23]. The research work by Gee [24] on the impact of wind farms on seascape aesthetics reported that half of the participants in the study held that wind farms despoil the seascape. Denmark has been a leader in developing the wind industry and in the study of social acceptance of wind farms [25,26,27,28]. The study by Ladenburg and Dubgaard [26] on ‘Willingness to pay for reduced visual disamenities from the offshore wind farm in Denmark’ found that the respondents prefer to pay more for electricity to reduce disamenities from offshore wind farm infrastructure by locating future wind farms further than 8 km from residential buildings. In the UK, the development of the offshore wind farm, ‘Gwynt-y-Mor’, in Wales was met with social resistance over visual disamenity concerns and the impact on other activities such as tourism [29].

As offshore wind projects are developed, social acceptance can be complex, with varying levels of support and opposition depending on the specific context, details, and engagement strategies of stakeholders [21,22,23]. Despite public support for renewable energy, including offshore wind, achieving social acceptance requires a proactive approach to building trust and addressing potential impacts. In studies evaluating offshore wind farms’ impacts on traditional industries and ocean space users, residents’ and tourists’ willingness to pay for visiting areas with turbines visible at varying distances from shoreline is usually emphasized [27]. Furthermore, offshore wind turbines have been reported to have associated costs (initial capital investment), maintenance requirements (production and decommissioning), reliability (power generation intermittency), supply chain requirements, and seascape impacts [15,17]. While visibility concerns are predominant in most regions across the globe, preferences for offshore wind farms vary somewhat between regions due to cultural differences and the existing local conditions, including energy sources and economic activities. These studies may not apply to the Australian context due to Australia’s unique regulations, legislations, penalties and residents’ characteristics.

1.2.2. Offshore Wind Farms: An Australian Perspective

Offshore wind development in Australia lags three decades behind industry pioneers in Europe in terms of investment, technology, knowledge and expertise, regulatory approvals and community awareness. Australia is currently undergoing a transition to renewable power generation but all renewable power projects to date have been installed onshore. Australia possesses world-class offshore wind resources along much of its vast coastline, and an existing workforce with expertise in installing and maintaining offshore infrastructure within the oil and gas industry. Offshore wind farms are located at sea on either fixed or floating foundations, depending on the depth of the seabed [30]. These resources and expertise could assist the Australian Government in achieving its goals of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 43% by 2030 (versus 2005 emissions) and achieving net-zero emissions by 2050 [31].

In 2022, the Australian Government passed legislation to enable the development of offshore wind projects in state and Commonwealth waters [32]. Installation of mega-scale offshore wind farms within these development zones will alter the seascapes in which they operate. These developments will be situated in marine habitats and will be visible to a large number of residents. Considering residents’ sentiments towards offshore wind projects at an early development stage can mitigate any adverse impacts on communities and projects. One such perceived adverse impact raised by residents in Victoria is the visual pollution caused by the large number of wind turbines comprising the planned ‘Star of the South’ offshore wind farm project, which will occupy an area of 496 square kilometres [33]. In WA, proposed offshore wind projects include a 500-megawatt wind farm south of Rottnest Island, a 300-megawatt wind farm near the coast of Myalup, and a 2-gigawatt wind farm off Bunbury [34].

Realization of these projects will require thousands of massive offshore wind turbines across Australian seascapes. Developers will require regulatory approval for such developments, including endorsement of all project plans by local residents. Offshore wind farm developers will not obtain approval from the Australian Government to develop new offshore infrastructure without first obtaining a social licence to operate based on community acceptance [35,36].

Wind power generation turbines may be located either onshore or offshore. All wind power generation within Australia is currently onshore, with production reaching 11.3 gigawatts in 2023, a significant increase from 3,8 gigawatts in 2014 [37]. The literature review for this study identified that there has been almost no research on regional and urban residents’ attitudes to the visual appearance of offshore wind farms in Australia. The Australian population has had no direct exposure to domestic offshore wind infrastructure. No offshore wind farms have yet been installed in Australia, which accounts for the growing importance of understanding residents’ perceptions in such regions.

Numerous offshore wind projects have been planned in WA. WA possesses excellent offshore wind resources and a skilled workforce with expertise in offshore infrastructure. WA has the longest mainland coastline length of all Australian states or territories, spanning 12,895 km [38]. WA must transition rapidly to renewable power generation to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050 [39,40]. As of 2025, the population of WA is projected to continue growing at the current annual rate of 1.8% [41]. This increase in population will increase energy demand. WA was therefore selected as a suitable case study to determine residents’ perceptions of future offshore wind farms.

Against this background, the WA case study—where residents are viewed as an essential contributor to the uptake of wind power—investigates whether social acceptance among residents whose daily lives will be impacted by new wind farm projects is influenced by factors beyond techno-economic ones. As residents’ perceptions become more stringent where wind energy penetration is high, this narrative contributes to the discussion regarding how their influence affects social acceptance of wind energy projects. Research into community acceptance is a critical first step in developing an offshore wind industry in WA. The successful implementation of offshore wind energy in WA depends on public acceptance. Identifying the perceptions and levels of awareness among residents is paramount to growing the offshore wind industry and thus contributing to Australia’s renewable energy targets. Given the nascent status of the Australian offshore wind industry and the lack of residents’ direct experience of offshore wind farms to date, future opposition to planned projects represents a key risk to implementation. The lack of academic literature on awareness levels and experience-based perceptions of offshore wind projects in Australia constitutes a significant gap in this research field. This study aims to answer the following question: ‘What are residents’ perceptions of offshore wind farms in Western Australia?’

1.3. Theoretical Underpinnings and Themes Development

The study holistically draws on the Knowledge–Attitude–Behaviour (K-A-B) model and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TBP) in identifying relevant factors shaping residents’ perceptions of energy decisions.

K-A-B is a conceptual model that facilitates the determination of residents’ perceptions towards the development of offshore wind farms. The K-A-B model can be applied to explore the link between environmental awareness and residents’ willingness to accept the visual impacts of renewable energy infrastructure [42]. The K-A-B model was selected to explore the role of knowledge in residents’ perceptions about renewable energy projects. Previous studies have concluded that the acquisition of knowledge changes attitudes and leads to changes in behaviour [43]. The adoption of this model in this study supports the study’s proposition that increasing awareness of offshore wind farms among residents leads to a change in attitude, which, over time, drives changes in behaviour. This model emphasizes that changes in attitudes towards renewable energy are driven by environmental knowledge. Drawing from the model’s theoretical assertion on environmental knowledge, this study adopts knowledge as a key factor in understanding residents’ decisions regarding the acceptance of renewable energy projects, as evident in the study’s propositions.

Similarly, the TPB is a theoretical framework that enables researchers to identify the drivers of environmental behaviour, which impact benefit decisions [44]. This framework has been applied extensively in environmental science and conservation to investigate pro-environmental behaviour. For example, this theory was utilized to study consumer demand for electric vehicles to understand environmental values, personal moral norms and how they influence individuals to adopt new behaviours [45]. Individuals’ values and personal moral norms are critical determinants for acceptance of renewable energy transition, and, in particular, offshore wind. The TPB provides a useful framework for investigating residents’ motivations in switching from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources.

Drawing from these underpinning theories and models, the study identified three themes and novel constructs that influence acceptance of offshore wind infrastructure. These factors and corresponding themes, shown in

Table 1. Themes and variables derived from the interviews.

Theory and a Model	Themes	Variables
Knowledge–Attitude–Behaviour (K-A-B) Model	The residents’ level of knowledge of offshore wind farms	Lack of awareness
		Superficial knowledge
		Fledgling industry
		No exposure to wind farms
		Impacts on marine life
		Visual impacts
Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)	Residents’ perceptions of benefits and shocks of offshore wind farms	Climate change abatement
		Strong preference towards alternative energy sources
		Decentralized energy systems
		Energy independence
		Better infrastructure for the environment
		Replacement of coal
		Progress and prosperity
		The scientific evidence
		Pro-environmental lifestyles
	Residents’ perceptions of factors influencing acceptance decisions	Reluctant acceptance of offshore wind infrastructure Cost and maintenance concerns
		Reluctant acceptance of wind turbines within visible range
		Personal moral norms about climate change (level of tolerance)
		Personal moral norms in relation to technical innovation (level of tolerance) Power generation intermittency Lack of supply chain development
		Personal moral norms in relation to geographical location (level of tolerance)
		Ascription of responsibility to take action (government, industry)

, assist in measuring pro-environmental behaviours via the identified constructs, “level of knowledge”, “residents’ benefits” and “residents’ acceptance” which indicate an increased demand for renewable energy as a result of public values, beliefs, and residents’ personal moral norms.

Open, axial and selective triadic coding methods were then employed based on the interpretation of verbal and non-verbal responses, to describe observed phenomena per stage three of the qualitative approach to identify 3 key themes and variables influencing residents’ perceptions of offshore wind projects acceptance. The first column presents the theory and model. The second column provides generated themes in line with the study’s research question. The third column lists variables representing constructs based on the theory and a model employed by the study to interpret the collected data. The identified themes of acceptance and variables are listed in Table 1.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Case Region: An Overview

Western Australia (WA) possesses world-class offshore wind resources along its vast coastline, and an existing workforce with expertise in installing and maintaining offshore infrastructure within the oil and gas industry. These resources and expertise could assist the Australian Government in achieving its goals of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Multiple developers are planning to submit proposals for the construction of offshore wind farms off the coast of WA between Perth and Bunbury [46]. Therefore, the research was conducted at Swanbourne Beach in Perth, WA, within direct sight of the Northern section of a proposed offshore wind project as shown in Figure 1. This location enabled the interviewees to visualize the impact of such future regional and urban projects more accurately, enhancing the quality of their responses. The declared offshore wind area off the coast of WA between Perth and Bunbury is 30 km from shore [47], as shown in Figure 1.

Since the launch of Western Australia’s energy transformation strategy in 2019, the contribution of renewable energy to the electricity grid has risen to 34%, driven by a combination of rooftop solar, utility solar, onshore wind and battery storage projects [48]. Twenty wind farms now operate in WA, and a further thirty projects are in the construction or planning stage. Still, the involvement of local communities has been variable across these developments [49]. In addition to onshore wind, WA’s offshore wind resources also play a key role in decarbonizing Australia’s energy production. The installation of proposed wind farms off the coast of WA between Perth and Bunbury will significantly alter the appearance of the seascapes in this heavily populated region. Such landscape transmogrifications cause a significant visual impact, which could jeopardize the development of future large-scale renewable energy projects.

Residents of WA have already demonstrated a high commitment to climate change mitigation via the installation of solar panels; over a quarter of households have installed solar panels, contributing 64% of grid electricity at peak output [50]. However, attitudes towards offshore wind farms in WA are less positive; three companies have withdrawn proposals for the development of offshore wind farms, citing community opposition as a critical obstacle [51]. The absence of a regulatory framework for community engagement in offshore wind farm projects may represent a further impediment to the installation of such projects.

2.2. Research Interviews

The principal data collection was through the administering of ten (10) in-depth interviews supplemented by investigator observations and field notes during the discussions. Interviews were adopted for this study to enhance the richness of data through respondents’ interactions, and to maximize the perspectives shared on the key issues of the study. An interview guide was first developed (Refer to Appendix A) and all interviews were conducted between April-May 2023 at Swanbourne Beach in WA. The number, length, date and location of interviews are presented in

Table 2. Interview information.

Number of Interviews	Length of Interviews	Date of Interviews	Research Location
10	25–40 min	30 April 2023–30 May 2023	Swanbourne Beach in Western Australia

.

This research was designed with reference to the Saunders Onion, which is a tool enabling structured research design [52]. The study employed each component of the Saunders Onion including the qualitative method, in-depth interviews, the theory and a model, interpretivism, inductive reasoning, a cross-sectional time horizon, and triadic coding-based data via thematic analysis. The qualitative approach was applied in this study across three stages including the interview process, interpretation of results, and triadic coding of interpreted results.

The triadic coding scheme of open, axial and selective coding was utilized [53]. The triadic coding scheme developed for this study was based on existing constructs (perceptions, awareness, personal moral norms, knowledge, societal pressure, ascription of responsibility, and environmental impacts) and identified new constructs (residents’ level of knowledge, residents’ benefits and residents’ tolerance) to determine themes and the frequency of responses (variables). For example, frequent response terms were “lack of awareness”, “superficial knowledge”, “fledgling industry”, “no exposure to wind farms”, “impacts on marine life”, “visual impacts”, “cost and maintenance concerns”, “climate change abatement”, “strong preference towards alternative energy”, “government”, “decentralized energy systems”, “energy independence”, “better infrastructure for the environment”, “replacement of coal”, “progress and prosperity”, “the scientific evidence”, “pro-environmental lifestyles”, “reluctant acceptance of offshore wind infrastructure”, “reluctant acceptance of wind turbines within visible range”, “personal moral norms in relation to climate change”, “personal moral norms in relation to technical innovation”, “lack of supply chain development”, “power generation intermittency”, “personal moral norms in relation to geographical location” and “ascription of responsibility to take action”.

Application of the triadic coding scheme enabled identification of themes, variables, and coding frequency, which, in turn, revealed insights on residents’ attitudes to offshore wind farms.

2.3. Participant Recruitment Process

Interviewees were recruited via the convenience sampling method whereby candidates were identified based on availability and willingness to participate. The researcher ensured that the sampling method was reliable and valid to achieve the interpretivist goals of the research project. The study was based on a sample of ten interview subjects. Interviews were conducted until no additional insights could be drawn from further interviews [54]. Data saturation was achieved after ten in-depth interviews, after all, requisite inputs had been provided. For example, the researcher observed repetition of ideas, variables and themes in residents’ responses. These inputs were then interpreted and coded in accordance with stage two of the qualitative approach. The ten participants were demographically diverse residents living within twenty kilometres of a planned wind farm project off the coast of Rottnest Island near Perth, WA. The interview sample spanned a range of socio-economic backgrounds, and included students, energy experts, and academics.

Given the nascent status of the offshore wind industry in Australia, the sample saturation level was similar to that in a study by Langer, Decker [55], ‘A qualitative analysis to understand the acceptance of wind energy in Bavaria’, based on nine qualitative interviews (excluding one pre-test interview) with participants from different organizational departments to determine drivers of wind energy acceptance in Germany. Another study by Tyler, Bidwell [56], ‘Preferences for community benefits for offshore wind development projects: A case study of the Outer Banks of North Carolina, U.S.’, was based on eleven interviews with a focus on and the community benefits of offshore wind developments.

2.4. Respondent Profile

The sample includes seven males and three females. The most common age bracket within the sample was 46–55, followed by 55+ and 18–25. Most participants hold tertiary qualifications, with three interviewees holding a bachelor’s degree, one interviewee with honours, and three interviewees with a PhD. Six respondents are in employment and one is retired. Demographic data for the study sample are presented in

Table 3. Demographic profile of respondents.

Interview Number	Gender	Age	Respondent Characteristics
Interview 1 (R1)	Female	46 to 55	PhD candidate
Interview 2 (R2)	Male	55+	Professor of Physics
Interview 3 (R3)	Female	46 to 55	Senior Researcher
Interview 4 (R4)	Male	18–25	Undergraduate in Computer science
Interview 5 (R5)	Male	55+	Mechanical Engineer
Interview 6 (R6)	Female	55+	Graphic Designer
Interview 7 (R7)	Male	18–25	High school student
Interview 8 (R8)	Male	46 to 55	Control systems engineer
Interview 9 (R9)	Male	18–25	Vocational training in environmental science
Interview 10 (R10)	Male	46 to 55	Mechanical Engineer

. Almost all interview subjects live within five kilometres of a Perth beach, and only one participant lives about sixteen kilometres from the coast. The researcher confirmed to all ten participants that the study required of participants to have no prior knowledge of offshore wind farm technology or impacts. All participants read the ‘Information for Participants Sheet’ and ‘Information Consent Form’ in advance and signed the Information Consent Form prior to being interviewed. The researcher asked each participant demographic questions on age group, qualification level, employment status and home location (all residents living within 20 km of Perth beaches), and then proceeded to the key interview questions.

2.5. Data Collection and Analysis

The requirements of the first stage of the qualitative approach were met by conducting interviews to obtain data on resident’s attitudes towards offshore wind infrastructure. Residents’ perceptions towards visual pollution from offshore wind farms were individually determined via in-depth interviews at the case region. In-depth interviews were identified as the most effective data collection method for this qualitative study due to small sample size, time limitations, and for detailed, verbal and non-verbal, real-time feedback from directly affected residents. In-depth qualitative interviews enable open-ended and systematic exploration of an event in a participant’s life [57]. All study respondents were taken through an introductory briefing on the purpose of the study, emphasizing that participation was voluntary and that opinions were ensured to be confidential. Verbal consent was obtained from participants who had the opportunity to opt out at any point. Interview responses were recorded and transcribed for subsequent data coding and analysis.

In qualitative research data analysis, the researcher must read collected data numerous times to identify key words, key phrases and key concepts [58]. The in-depth, semi-structured interview questions prompted real time responses containing unique insights. Interviewees were coded R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9 and R10 for anonymity and confidentiality reasons. The interviewees’ responses (direct quotes) were not edited for clarity. The primary data collected via the in-depth interviews was organized to identify key themes to generate reliable and credible observations, draw conclusions and form recommendations for further research.

The collected data was critically and accurately analyzed based on the interpretation of subjective, qualitative, verbal interview responses and non-verbal feedback via thematic analysis. The researchers read all transcripts several times until no new key themes appeared. The frequency of themes was also counted to determine the prevalence of each theme, and to weight responses accordingly. The key themes were condensed to narrow down the data and potentially create new themes to determine residents’ awareness of the offshore wind industry in Australia. In this research, thematic data analysis was used to analyze collected data via classification of responses into three thematic categories: ‘knowledge’, ‘perceptions of the benefits’ and ‘perceptions of factors influencing acceptance’. No additional analytical programmes or procedures were employed for the purpose of data analysis due to a small sample.

3. Results

The study identified three themes which affect residents’ perceptions on offshore wind energy farm development in Australia (residents’ knowledge levels, residents’ perceptions of potential benefits, and residents’ perceptions of factors influencing acceptance decisions).

3.1. Residents’ Knowledge Levels on Offshore Wind Farms

The interviews determined that most interviewees have little or no knowledge, and a limited awareness of offshore wind turbines and their visual impact. For example, R9 stated: “Visual impacts of offshore, I know nothing about visual impacts of offshore wind”. Interviews revealed that identified theme “Residents’ level of knowledge on offshore wind farms” linked to the variables “lack of awareness”, “superficial knowledge”, “fledgling industry”, “no exposure to wind farms”, “visual impacts” and “impacts on marine life”. These variables expressed by most respondents via assertions that, despite limited knowledge and lack of awareness of offshore wind farms and their visual impacts, they would tolerate alternative energy sources such as offshore wind development, in order to mitigate climate change and expedite the transition to cleaner energy production in Australia. Interview participant R2 stated “I cannot say that I am expert. I have a very superficial knowledge. My superficial knowledge, I think allows me to understand that it is clean energy, it is really beneficial for environment, and replace coal, oil and gas industry with clean energy will be good” and R1 added, “I can imagine what they might look like out there in the ocean. Seeing them in Europe make me feel happy and I wish we had them in Australia. I don’t know much about technology. Only in the distance, I have seen pictures”. Participants aged 46 to 55 were most knowledgeable about offshore wind farms, as shown in Figure 2. Male participants demonstrated greater awareness of offshore wind farms than female participants, as shown in Figure 3.

More than half of the participants stated that government is responsible for engagement with residents via community consultations and exposure to offshore wind farms. Participants also expected that government will provide local communities with information on the benefits and drawbacks of proposed wind farms at the early development stage, and expected impacts on marine life to enable residents to act in the best interests of the local and global environment. During the interview, R7 commented “I am not sure, but I think the government, organizations. The government supposed to act, to make connections. The industry as well. I think via some open discussions, people should be informed about all details” and R6 asserted “Of course, they have to talk to us before building. We are going to live next to them. Of course, we should have a voice”.

Concern for marine life emerged from the interview responses as a key issue and was cited by the majority of participants. Respondents expressed concerns about the potential impacts on marine life of installing offshore wind farm infrastructure, particularly on seabed communities, aquatic vertebrates (fish) and aquatic plants (sea grasses, algae and plankton). Participants believe that offshore wind infrastructure will negatively impact marine life during construction, operation and decommissioning. For example, R8 claimed “Of course, first of all, it is really bad for marine life, for wildlife and also for people who live in front of the offshore wind infrastructure, wind turbines”, and R2 opined “So long-term is very difficult to predict, it might be an impact on fish population, marine life”.

3.2. Residents’ Perceptions of Benefits and Shocks of Offshore Wind Farms

The scientific evidence of anthropogenic climate change strongly influences participants’ attitudes on the topic of renewable energy infrastructure. Participants’ attitudes towards alternative energy sources were initiated by knowledge of climate change which created changes in intentions and instigated pro-environmental behaviour. These residents’ attitudes influenced the switch to alternative energy sources despite limited knowledge of the offshore wind industry. The theme of residents’ perceptions of the benefits and impacts of offshore wind farms emerged in relation to the variables “climate change abatement”, “alternative energy source”, “decentralized energy systems”, “energy independence”, “better infrastructure for the environment”, “replacement of coal”, “progress and prosperity”, “the scientific evidence”, and “pro-environmental lifestyles” indicate that most interview respondents demonstrated awareness of climate change and benefits of alternative energy sources. The identified theme and variables are characterized by the urgent need for a transition to cleaner energy, the role of science in providing reliable information on climate change, and the importance of expressing environmental concerns via peaceful and legal channels.

Residents are aware of the significant implications of ignoring anthropogenic climate change. Despite residents’ preferences for undeveloped seascapes, all interviewees approved of offshore wind infrastructure, as a superior alternative to fossil fuels. For example, R7 admitted “Yes, I do feel an obligation to, if you live in countries like Vietnam and China, the people who do live next to big power plants where they do burning lots of fossil fuels quality of life is pretty poor. I don’t want to contribute to it. I do feel obliged to use renewable source of energy wherever I can and lower my carbon footprint” and R2 predicted “It will replace the burning coal and gas infrastructure, power plant and of course that probably will make cleaner atmosphere, land and maybe sky. Wind farms so they are really as far as I know they are clean…”.

Most respondents emphasized the critical role of science in providing reliable information on climate change and the need for renewable energy to mitigate global warming. For instance, R2 declared “The scientific community, their advice I value the most” and R1 conjectured: “I guess anything science based and I guess I believe in people in renewable energy industry. The scientific community and my readings”. These quotes are characterized by the urgent need for a transition to cleaner energy, the role of science in providing reliable information on climate change, and the importance of expressing environmental concerns via peaceful and legal channels as the R1 interview participant reflected “Yes, I think even though I personally wouldn’t participate in citizen-led, collective action against climate change but people who do it add value and bring issues to attention. I think it is good. I think it is good to bring attention about certain issues, some people will get upset. I will be supportive when there is a vote” and R6 confirmed “I am supportive where the action is based on sound scientific evidence”.

Half of the participants felt pressure to address environmental impacts such as the transition to alternative energy sources. All ten interview respondents felt obliged to minimize their consumption of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) and switch to alternative energy sources (wind, solar). Individuals are increasingly being pressured via governments and their communities to act pro-environmentally and adopt pro-environmental lifestyles via incentives and penalties as well as social norms [59]. The global nature of atmospheric warming has resulted in a shared responsibility for pro-environmental behaviour across all countries and communities throughout the world. To this, R4 replied “I think the global problem should be addressed first rather than I don’t think the impacts on the seascape should be addressed. I don’t think it should be considered. The climate change should be addressed first”.

Studies drawing from TPB support the argument that societal pressure motivates and facilitates positive attitudes, behaviours and pro-environmental lifestyles, including recognition of the negative impacts of fossil fuels and acceptance of the benefits of renewable energy projects [60,61]. The existence of societal pressure to address climate change was cited by all participants during the interview process. The study determined that residents’ attitudes to offshore wind farms acceptance are influenced by social pressure to transition to cleaner energy. Almost all participants displayed awareness of the devastating impacts of climate change and associated increases in sea levels, higher average temperatures, more frequent heatwaves, greater bushfire risks, and more severe droughts and floods. The participants’ deep environmental concerns for climate change revealed a general awareness of the adverse environmental effects of continuing to burn fossil fuels instead of transitioning to clean energy. For instance, R2 retorted: “Of course, there are negative effects. Pollution of atmosphere, carbon oxide and carbon dioxide and green house effects and so on and so far” and R5 affirmed: “The economy always needs to progress and the demand for renewable energy will increase, renewable energy increase is needed, this kind of energy is needed given that all is going to be electrical, electric cars, etc.”. R4 associated offshore wind infrastructure with only positive impacts: “I think it will be very little. I can really see only the positives. They will provide renewable energy. It is a good thing”. R5 was confident that offshore wind infrastructure benefits the community and marine ecosystems: “Yes, I would if this is the only option, because this infrastructure is better for the environment”.

Additionally, participants responded that consumers can influence the uptake of renewable energy through purchasing decisions based on cost and social outcomes such as health benefits. Respondents believe that energy production from offshore wind farms will assist in satisfying current and future demand for renewable energy and will reduce energy prices and dependence on oil and gas imports. Participants believe that energy produced from offshore wind farms is beneficial to the economy and society, as indicated by R1: “I think fossil fuels they concentrate the wealth in the hands of a few, whereas you can make renewable can be decentralized. I think it would be better socially and economically for an equal society”.

3.3. Residents’ Perceptions of Factors Influencing Acceptance Decisions

The following variables occurred frequently during the interviews; “reluctant acceptance of offshore wind infrastructure (cost and maintenance concerns)”, “reluctant acceptance of wind turbines within visible range (visual impacts)”, “personal moral norms in relation to climate change”, “personal moral norms in relation to technical innovation (power generation intermittency and lack of supply chain development)” and “personal moral norms in relation to geographical location”. Interview participants opined that the capital expenditure and maintenance costs for offshore wind infrastructure are presently significantly higher than those for onshore wind farms in Australia. However, interviewees believed that in the long term, the economics of offshore wind infrastructure will improve. For example, R10 stated, “Offshore wind power is very expensive compared with onshore wind and onshore solar at the moment but in the long term the economic impact will be positive compared with alternatives, especially the cost of sequestering the carbon emissions from fossil fuels”, and R1 asserted that “I think it will generate more power, I think it will be good. Economics in particular, I think in the long run energy would be cheaper”. In addition, offshore wind farms can increase the risk of grid instability depending on the consistency of the wind resource at the site location. Furthermore, interviewees expressed concern that the limited scale of offshore wind farms in Australia may constrain power supply, particularly where overall power demand rises due to AI and other growth sectors. Participant R3 stated, “I think the demand for energy will increase, but you won’t be able to increase the production of this kind of energy in the future to the level that is needed to make everything sustainable”. In addition to cost and maintenance concerns, visual impacts, and power intermittency of offshore wind projects, participants also cited the criticality of local supply chain infrastructure in developing the offshore wind sector in Australia. Participants believe that existing capability in the offshore oil and gas sector may assist in establishing such a supply chain for offshore wind, based on synergies spanning engineering, procurement, construction, operations and maintenance. Furthermore, offshore wind projects may provide employment opportunities for thermal power station workers facing redundancy due to the impending closure of coal-fired generators. For example, R1 asserted, “And I know over East they’re trying to close down coal-fired power stations and they need an alternative so that they need an economic industry for people to work in”. Despite limited awareness of the impacts of installing offshore wind infrastructure within sight of coastal populations in Australia, acceptance of new sustainable energy sources remains a top issue of concern. Participants would reluctantly prioritize the global benefits of offshore wind over local visual aesthetics by accepting alternative energy sources to reduce environmental impacts, benefit the community and expedite the transition to cleaner energy production. For example, interview participant R10 responded “I believe in progress and prosperity for all, which means protecting the environment whilst developing cleaner, safer and more sustainable energy sources through technical innovation”, and R3 expressed tolerance towards offshore wind infrastructure: “If there would be choice, preferably, of course, I would prefer these wind farms within invisible range. If it is not possible, I will prefer within visible range of my local region”.

Internal values and personal moral norms are the main drivers of pro-environmental behaviour based on interview participants’ responses. The majority of interviewees holds biospheric values in relation to climate change, such as protecting the local environment, including conservation and ecosystem management. Residents’ values, personal moral norms and perceptions of offshore wind farms as an enabler of emissions reductions are critical to the future of the offshore wind industry. The study explains that the acceptance of biospheric values creates climate change awareness and activates individuals’ personal norms in relation to climate change and acceptance of the benefits of technical innovation, resulting in pro-environmental behaviour. Almost all interviewees for this study acknowledged that climate change can increase the frequency and severity of extreme weather events, and the majority asserted that the benefits of offshore wind farms will outweigh any adverse impacts, as indicated by R2: “I am really worried about the effects of burning fossil fuels. I know that it has changed the climate already. Some places becoming dryer, some are having floods”. The majority of interviewees responded that they would therefore accept offshore wind infrastructure and any related changes to the seascape, where such projects were developed by others. The study results indicate a positive correlation between environmental awareness and a high level of tolerance for the visual impact of offshore wind infrastructure, as indicated in the reply by R2: “Yes, I think local residents they have responsibility before their kids, their future to accept changes to the seascape”. R4’s strong preference for cleaner energy indicates acceptance of offshore infrastructure in Australian waters: “I feel offshore wind development is an important source of cleaner energy so I would not reject such a development”, and R1 expressed climate change anxiety and strong acceptance of offshore wind infrastructure: “I would accept changes to the seascape. I have been worried about climate change for decades now and I am so happy to see progress. So, personally, yes. We are behind the times here”. The findings further indicate that tolerance based on awareness of climate change can positively influence the development of the offshore wind industry in Australia. The literature supports this argument where residents who were surveyed by the Australian Science Agency, CSIRO, in 2023 expressed a willingness to accept, or at least tolerate, the development of offshore wind farms [62]. Only a small minority of the participants would not tolerate the installation of offshore wind farms within sight of a coastal population. In relation to the issue of whether climate change represents an existential threat, half of the participants responded that humanity will survive but that the quality of life for many communities will be adversely impacted, as noted by R1: “Yes, I feel like humans will survive but what kind of world we will be leaving in. We owe it to future generations, try to do as much as we can to stop climate change”. The majority of interviewees voiced a sense of personal obligation to accept the installation of offshore wind turbines within the visible range of their local area for the benefit of the global environment. The research revealed that most interview respondents would only accept such wind infrastructure where there was no alternative for clean power production with a smaller visual impact. Most respondents prefer ocean views that are uninterrupted by wind turbines. Most interviewed residents stated that they would tolerate visible wind farm infrastructure based on the global benefits of low-carbon energy production. Only R8 expressed intolerance towards offshore wind farms in their local area: “I rather not to see them. Not within visible range of my local region. In addition, the study revealed that despite expressing personal moral norms, and particularly biospheric values, residents do not plan to take direct action on climate change. In regard to the credibility of citizen-led, collective actions against climate change, the majority of participants supports the idea of such initiatives but would not directly participate in citizen-led campaigns as indicated by R8: “To be honest, probably not. You can sign petitions and so on. I probably wouldn’t. I wouldn’t go and I wouldn’t engage in activist behaviour. I will try to sign petition and talk to right people”.

Almost all interviewees acknowledged that science influences their values and personal moral norms in relation to the acceptance of renewable energy. The study revealed that high tolerance towards offshore wind farms is linked to a strong association with clean energy production. Female participants exhibited higher tolerance than males towards acceptance of offshore wind farms, as shown in Figure 4. The study also indicated that concern for climate change increases the level of tolerance of the visual impact of offshore wind farms. This statement is consistent with the key findings from the interviews, which suggest greater demand for offshore wind energy based on awareness of the advantages of renewable energy over fossil fuels.

4. Discussion

Current knowledge on social acceptance of offshore wind farms is therefore based almost entirely on international studies and findings. Therefore, the level of social acceptance of offshore wind farms requires investigation at a local level. The objectives of this study were to determine residents’ attitudes on the visual impact of offshore wind farms, including residents’ awareness and knowledge of the role of offshore wind in society, residents’ perceptions of the benefits of offshore wind farms and residents’ perceptions of factors influencing acceptance decisions of offshore wind farm development in WA. This current study identifies several indicators for determining residents’ perceptions of future offshore wind farms, which may be of assistance in identifying residents’ perceptions in other states, territories or countries. Further, the study’s scope advances knowledge more broadly on underlying factors shaping residents’ decision-making processes in relation to new energy sources, which constitutes a current gap in the literature.

The implication of this finding is that individuals who understand environmental issues are more likely to take action and support alternative energy sources. This finding is consistent with multiple studies which have concluded that knowledgeable residents are likely to accept the transition to alternative energy sources [42,43,63]. Evidence from the K-A-B model implies that awareness of climate change issues promotes pro-environmental behaviours [42].

The study determined that residents’ knowledge of offshore wind farms is low due to the nascent nature of the offshore wind industry in Australia. In order to spur actions and pro-environmental behaviours the type and level of knowledge must be clearly defined. In particular, the required level of knowledge in relation to offshore wind infrastructure, renewable energy versus fossil fuels, and impacts on marine life offer causal link to attitudes and pro-environmental behaviours. Thus, local training initiatives on wind farm knowledge-sharing, which dominates much of respondents’ discussions are more likely to enhance its impact on behaviours or promote honest conversations and bidirectional feedback on energy-related projects at the local level.

The existing knowledge gap on offshore wind infrastructure and its impacts on marine life highlights an opportunity for the government and developers to encourage more positive attitudes towards future projects by sharing detailed facts and information with local residents in advance. The protection of marine life is of significant importance to interview participants. The study observed that majority of interviewees have little or no knowledge on the impacts of offshore wind infrastructure on marine life habitats, which can be positive and negative. The community’s concern for marine life may become an obstacle to offshore wind development. This finding is consistent with an early study on public acceptance involving a survey of 500 residents conducted in 2005 to gauge the level of local support for offshore wind farm development in the USA [23]. The survey concluded that a large majority believed that harm to marine life represented the greatest disamenity from offshore wind farm development, followed by increased electricity costs and visual pollution. This study determined that all participants perceived damage to marine life from offshore wind turbines; almost all interviewees had little or no knowledge of offshore wind turbines and their visual impact. Another study on public acceptance of offshore wind farms by Gazzani [64], involving a survey of 512 local residents administered in 2023 to explore acceptance of offshore wind infrastructure in Sardinia, Italy, concluded that residents were critical of new offshore wind farms citing adverse impacts on marine ecosystems. A more recent study on ‘Effects of offshore wind farms: Environmental and Social Perspectives from Uruguay’ by Forastiero, Gutiérrez [65] implies that impacts on marine life from offshore wind farms could be significant and therefore require further investigation.

The findings present an opportunity for wind farm developers to maximize the probability of project delivery by engaging and consulting local residents from an early development stage to raise awareness of the benefits of offshore wind versus fossil fuels, and to dispel any misconceptions in relation to local environmental impacts on avian and marine wildlife as well as human activities including recreation, fisheries, and other industries. For example, positive impacts include the increase in marine life enabled by turbine foundations which act as artificial reefs; negative impacts include disruption to local marine life during the construction phase due to noise and sediment displacement [66]. Early engagement by local residents with government and industry in the development of the offshore wind sector will increase the probability of residents’ concerns being factored into project design decisions on wind farm size, location, and turbine height. Local residents must improve their awareness, knowledge and understanding of offshore wind farms and impacts on marine life in order to draw conclusions on the benefits and drawbacks of such infrastructure.

Residents’ perceptions of the benefits and shocks of offshore wind farms influence acceptance decisions. Almost all interviewees accepted that human-induced climate change adversely affects the environment. More frequent floods, bushfires and heatwaves have threatened populated areas and wildlife habitats, prompting participants to respond by reducing carbon emissions. Previous studies indicate that Australians are deeply concerned about climate change from anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and are therefore transitioning to renewable energy to power industry, transport and personal appliances [67,68,69,70,71]. Similarly, most interview participants agreed that the transition to renewable energy was necessary but mostly accompanied by its own challenges ranging from high-cost production and maintenance to reliability concerns of the services. Residents strongly preferred offshore wind turbines on the horizon to air pollution from coal-fired power plants. Despite gaining awareness of wind farms’ visual and noise impacts through their knowledge of existing onshore wind farms across Australia, the study findings confirm the relationship between climate change awareness and acceptance of offshore wind farms’ visual and noise impacts. In this study, when personal benefit was considered in decision-making among residents, it seems to make sense that the perception of benefit appears as a powerful indicator in the tolerance of wind farm projects.

In addition, Australians are becoming increasingly aware that alternative energy, such as offshore wind is required to mitigate climate change and achieve energy independence. Firestone, Kempton [72] compared survey responses from 2005, 2006 and 2009 in the USA and discovered that public support for offshore wind energy rises with residents’ desire for energy independence. In this study, the interviewees acknowledged the need to transition from fossil fuels to more sustainable and diverse sources of energy production via the installation of offshore wind farms, which would benefit society and promote energy independence. The TPB asserts that there is a link between beliefs and behaviour [44]. TPB therefore implies that awareness of the negative consequences of climate change will lead to pro-environmental actions which is supported in previous studies [73]. This study found that the benefits of offshore wind farms influence participants’ new behaviour.

Similarly, residents’ perceptions of factors influencing acceptance decisions revealed that ninety percent of the respondents would reluctantly accept the sight of offshore wind turbines in their local area. Previous research into community acceptance of wind turbines also confirmed that participants perceived onshore wind farms to be an imposition on the landscape but still displayed generally positive attitudes towards onshore wind turbines as a key mitigation of climate change [68].

In addition to visual impacts, the research identified that offshore wind farm installation in Australia faces further barriers, including high upfront costs, grid firming requirements, wind resource intermittency and supply chain logistics. Upfront costs will be compounded by local fabrication and installation capability gaps, domestic supply chain constraints and skilled labour shortages. Logistical infrastructure for offshore wind farms requires high upfront Capital Expenditure (Capex), which constitutes 60–70% of the full life-cycle cost [74]. The development of offshore wind is more complex than onshore wind and can be significantly affected by supply chain elements such as specialized vessels for surveying, cable laying and turbine installation [74]. The development of the offshore wind sector also requires suitable port infrastructure, fabrication facilities and a highly qualified workforce. Existing industrial capability, port proximity and onshore support infrastructure are all key factors when selecting an offshore wind production site [74]. The absence of such facilities may impair offshore wind development in Australia. Offshore wind farms can increase the risk of grid instability. Diurnal winds, for example, which peak around midday will result in power generation which is not synchronized with demand which typically peaks in the early evening. Additional grid infrastructure will therefore be required to align supply and demand including utility scale batteries and other equipment. Such additional grid services will increase the overall cost of offshore wind projects for the final consumer.

The study finding confirmed that despite claiming little knowledge of the offshore wind sector, almost all interviewed residents expressed positive attitudes towards proposed offshore wind farms in their local region, based on their concern for the global environment. The study results align with the finding that over 75% of Australians are concerned about climate change and that 82% strongly support the phase-out of fossil fuels to reduce emissions [75]. The overall implication of this finding is that most interviewees support offshore wind farm development in their local area but with reservations and several outstanding concerns, including the need for further information.

Most participants described themselves as knowing little about offshore wind power generation and its impacts on wildlife. The existing gap in knowledge on offshore wind infrastructure highlights an opportunity for the government and developers to encourage more positive attitudes towards future projects by sharing detailed facts and information with local residents in advance. Community concerns can be alleviated via tools such as Cinematic Virtual Reality simulations and site visits to existing wind farms [76]. In addition, it is necessary to develop a regulatory framework for consulting and supporting local communities that are affected by wind farm projects. Onshore and offshore wind development is widely accepted in Denmark, Germany, Spain and other European countries where community suggestions have been incorporated into wind farm designs [77].

The overall implication of this research is that residents are more unlikely to accept any adverse visual impacts from offshore wind farms. These responses are aligned with previous studies which state that individuals accept an action’s values when they believe that action can provide support to the object of a value. Most interviewees linked wind farms with cleaner and cheaper energy. The research findings in this study further imply a causal link between personal values and a sense of moral obligation to accept any adverse visual impacts of offshore wind farms, based on their environmental benefits.

Limitations of the Study

This study was limited by multiple factors. Firstly, the study was limited to the collection of cross-sectional data, which yielded insights on residents’ attitudes only at a single point in time. However, the addition of longitudinal data collection would have identified any changes in attitudes over time.

Secondly, this research was based exclusively on qualitative dataset, whereby only inductive reasoning was applied to study responses from the interviews. The small number of resident interviewees in this study provided great depth of knowledge but lacked breadth. All interviewees were shown two images of the local seascape where the horizon in the first image depicted wind turbines, whilst the horizon in the second image was clear. The interviewees responded to questions on their attitudes to offshore wind farms based on these two images. Future studies are encouraged to adopt more quantitative approaches in exploring the extent to which identified factors influence themselves as well as the overall acceptance rate.

Moreover, the literature review revealed the paucity of data on social acceptance of offshore wind farms. This research highlights the need for future studies via direct and active engagement with residents affected by offshore wind farm development to explore adoption factors shaping residents’ attitudes to offshore wind farm development.

5. Conclusions and Future Research Directions

The study explored residents’ attitudes towards offshore wind industry development in Australian waters. WA is well-positioned to benefit from the offshore wind industry due to high wind capacity factors, which could deliver cost-effective renewable power whilst assisting WA to achieve its net-zero greenhouse gas emissions target by 2050. Findings of this research can assist developers to better understand environmental regulations in Australia, local residents’ perspectives, and how to manage community perceptions and acceptance towards offshore energy transition. Additionally, findings can assist the government to design simplified regulations in support of energy transition to decarbonize the world and Australia becoming an offshore wind superpower.

WA is yet to establish a regulatory framework to address consumer concerns based on residents’ perceptions. The framework should include identified relevant factors. Future offshore wind farm development will be influenced by identified three key factors: residents’ level of knowledge of offshore wind farms, residents’ perceptions of the benefits of offshore wind farms, and residents’ perceptions of factors influencing acceptance decisions. For example, concern for marine life will influence residents’ tolerance of future offshore wind farms. Future offshore wind development projects should address not only techno-economic factors but also social and environmental issues. The visual impact of future offshore wind infrastructure may be mitigated based on proven solutions such as locating turbines further than 8 km from residential buildings, as detailed in the literature review for this study. In addition, the identified factors may assist in developing tools and models to assess residents’ perceptions. This study enhances the body of literature by determining WA residents’ perceptions of future offshore wind farms, where previous research has focused on the techno-economics of renewable energy sources rather than social acceptance.

The findings of this study may have multiple implications for the nascent offshore wind industry in Australia, as well as multiple key stakeholder groups including developers, government and local communities. The findings imply that the development of the offshore wind industry in WA will not be significantly hindered by resistance from local residents, based on a high level of tolerance of visible wind turbines, and an existing awareness of the environmental advantages of wind power over fossil fuels.

Timely development of the offshore wind industry in WA will require however greater awareness of the critical role of offshore wind infrastructure in limiting climate change, as well as the impact of wind infrastructure on local ecosystems. The results also imply that raising awareness of the benefits of offshore wind among local residents during the early development phase of each project will reduce the risk of community opposition by leveraging the tendency among residents towards passive pro-environmentalism. The findings further imply that, based on the preference of most interviewees to preserve the natural seascape, the development of projects situated further from shore will be more readily accepted by local communities.

The study highlights multiple opportunities for further research. These include longitudinal studies to compare residents’ attitudes over time, mixed-method studies to obtain more comprehensive and robust results, quantitative studies involving larger samples of representative resident profiles across all Australian states and territories, and finally, studies based on technologies such as virtual reality to simulate offshore wind farm infrastructure prior to construction.