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Essay

Spatial Distribution of Ethnic Villages in the Mountainous Region of Northwest Yunnan and Their Relationship with Natural Factors

by
Shan Liu
1,
Xuhua Li
2,
Qing Lin
1 and
Jiang Qiu
3,*
1
School of Landscape Architecture, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
2
Sichuan Academy of Forestry, Chengdu 610081, China
3
School of Ecological Technology and Engineering, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai 201418, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(16), 12307; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151612307
Submission received: 23 April 2023 / Revised: 7 August 2023 / Accepted: 10 August 2023 / Published: 12 August 2023
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Abstract

:
The mountainous region of northwest Yunnan is a multi-ethnic region in China where several ethnic groups, such as the Tibetans, Lisu, and Naxi, reside. This study utilises the average nearest neighbour index, kernel density analysis, and GeoDetector (Geographical Detector) to analyse the spatial distribution characteristics of different types of ethnic villages, their correlation with the natural environment, and differences in the influence of various natural environmental factors. The results show the following: (1) the spatial distribution of the three types of ethnic villages in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan are clustered. (2) Tibetan villages are characterised by high elevation, gentle slopes, proximity to the river, low annual average temperature, and low annual precipitation. Lisu villages are characterised by medium elevation, steep slopes, high annual average temperature, and high annual precipitation. Multi-ethnic villages are characterised by low elevation, medium slopes, proximity to rivers, high annual average temperature, and high annual precipitation. (3) Ethnic villages are affected by various natural factors such as elevation, slope, river buffer zone, annual average temperature, annual precipitation, and ecological environment. Among these, ecological environment has the greatest impact on Tibetan villages, and annual precipitation has the greatest impact on Lisu and multi-ethnic villages. (4) The distribution of the Tibetan villages is mostly constrained by the composite factors of ecosystem and precipitation, while that of the Lisu villages by the composite factors of precipitation and elevation, and that of the multi-ethnic villages by the composite factors of precipitation and temperature.

1. Introduction

The relationship between humans and the natural environment has been a long-discussed issue. In ancient China, Zhuangzi said: “Heaven and earth as a whole (natural environment) is the mother of all things [1]”. In ancient Greece, philosophers such as Hippocrates and Aristotle explored the relationship between humans and climate. Many ideas remained very influential until the eighteenth century [2]. Darwin’s On the Origin of Species had a great influence on the study of man and the natural environment [3]. In the nineteenth century, driven by colonialism, environmental determinism became a loud voice in the academic world [4]. Although environmental determinism received a lot of criticism since the twentieth century, it has been widely accepted that the natural environment has some influence on the development of culture [5]. Cashdan argues that ethnic diversity is related to latitude, and pathogen stress and climate diversity are important factors [6]. Michalopoulos concludes that geography has an important impact on ethnic diversity [7]. Areas with a long history of stable human settlements in prehistoric times have richer ethnic diversity [8]. Green believes that low levels of urbanisation are one of the reasons for Africa’s ethnic diversity [9]. People with different cultural backgrounds have different preferences for natural environments [10]. From the end of the twentieth century, GIS has become an important tool for social science research [11,12]. Among which, ethnicity and living environment is always an important research subject [13,14,15]. In recent years, due to the intensification of climate change and large-scale urbanisation, the study of the relationship between human culture and the natural environment has once again been favoured by the academic community, especially the relationship between ethnic groups and the natural environment. Studies find that ethnic villages are vulnerable to climate change [16,17]. Some ethnic groups suffer more losses from flooding and air pollution [18,19] Also, urbanisation has a negative impact on the health of people from ethnic groups [20], and causes gentrification [21]. These studies mostly analysed the socio-economic aspects of ethnic communities, and less on the natural environmental characteristics of the living environment. Studies in China recently have shown that village distribution is affected by natural and socioeconomic factors, such as natural water systems, elevation, slope, temperature, precipitation, and road systems. From the perspective of landscape ecology, Jiao et al. analyse and calculate land use in the study area and argue that cultivated land is an important factor affecting the distribution pattern of residential land in the oasis landscape [22]. Feng et al. find that most villages in Mao County have good water resources, roads, and telecommunication network coverage, and are clustered close to road networks rather than rivers, with approximately half of the rural villages being relatively concentrated [23]. Luo et al. study the villages of Houzhai and regional villages in Puding County, Guizhou, and find that the spatial differences in the rapid development of villages are predominantly determined by external traffic conditions; the villages are concentrated in the traffic arteries, showing a linear distribution trend along the highway, and the shape is more complex [24]. Zhang et al. survey villages in the hill area of Zhenjiang City, Jiangsu Province, and find that elevation, population size, transportation, water systems, and cultivated land jointly affected the distribution of villages [25].
Recently, the number of studies on the spatial distribution of culture-based villages, such as ethnic villages, has rapidly increased. The results of an analysis of the differences in the spatial distribution characteristics of Miao and Dong villages in the Southeast mountains of Qiandongnan show that Miao villages are clustered at high elevations and slopes, while Dong villages are only clustered at high values on slopes, and that topography has a significant influence on the distribution of Miao villages [26]. Yang et al. find that traditional villages of the Miao ethnic group are concentrated in areas of elevation 500–1000 m, with terrain undulation 30–70 m, and slope 5°–15° [27]. A study of villages in Turpan shows that village distribution is significantly affected by water sources such as wells and rivers [28]. Xu et al. find that the distribution of ethnic villages in Fujian is affected by a variety of topographic factors, among which river width is most important [29]. Jin et al. argue that the natural environment of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau is the most important influencing factor affecting the distribution of traditional villages, followed by human factors and socio-economic factors [30]. Xiong and Huang find that the traditional villages of the Qiang ethnic group are relatively concentrated and distributed in blocks or strips, predominantly along the river, gathered along main streams or at high elevations, and scattered along tributaries or at low elevations [31]. These studies expand the understanding of the distribution of villages in areas where ethnic groups are concentrated. However, most village samples selected in these studies are limited to the List of Traditional Chinese Villages, which is mainly compiled by the Ministry of Housing and Urban–Rural Development of China. And most of these traditional villages have well-preserved historical buildings, road planning, and cultural rituals, and are not representative of all villages. Consequently, they do not provide sufficient theoretical support for the protection and sustainable development of ethnic villages. Owing to the different levels of development of different ethnic groups and degrees of foreign exchange, these cases may not necessarily show the distribution characteristics of specific ethnic villages. Besides, these studies lack a comparison of the distribution of different ethnic minorities in multi-ethnic areas. Therefore, it is important to expand the size and diversity of samples to increase the reliability of research.
The mountainous region of northwest Yunnan is famous for its unique geological features. The three great rivers flow parallel from north to south without converging. Additionally, its dramatic canyons have a significant impact on precipitation and temperature, resulting in a rich and diverse ecological environment. Many locations in this area are classified as protected areas by the Three Parallel Rivers World Heritage Site due to their extraordinary natural value. Besides, the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan belongs to the “Tibetan-Yi corridor (TYC)” area, a hot spot of Chinese ethnological research and a landmark area for cultural diversity in China. Throughout history, ethnic groups such as the Tibetans, Lisu, and Naxi have shared the land of this area. In recent years, Chinese scholars have paid more and more attention to the villages in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan. Through case studies, Gao discovers that the road changes in the village have changed the original livelihood and lifestyle of the villagers in Zhiziluo, and the villagers’ ideological concepts and social relations have suffered unprecedented impacts [32]. Li and Zhang argue that road construction over the past hundred years has promoted interaction and cooperation between villages [33]. Han finds that the social roles and status of women from different ethnic groups differed [34]. Liu discovers that towns formed in different historical periods have different ethnic compositions and have formed different social orders [35]. Traditional handicrafts have developed rapidly under the influence of modernisation and have been integrated into modern culture [36,37]. Yang finds that the phenomena of the invention of tradition and consumer culture have emerged in the protection practice of intangible cultural heritage in northwest Yunnan [38]. He finds that many places have over-interpreted, crudely reconstructed, and blindly expanded folk rituals [39]. Yuan et al. find that in the traditional ethnic architecture, the belief space plays an important role [40]. Through studying Qing Dynasty documents, Han finds that, over the past two hundred years, in the course of adapting to social and cultural changes, the multi-ethnic groups in northwest Yunnan have continuously exchanged and integrated, and the cultural traditions of various ethnic groups have developed and changed to a certain extent [41]. Li and Liu hold that the relatively isolated geographical environment and closely linked economic life in modern times are the basis for the harmonious coexistence of many ethnic groups in northwest Yunnan [42]. Li and Liu find that from 1986 to 2015, the changes in land use types in northwest Yunnan are more complicated, the overall fragmentation of the landscape has intensified, and the connectivity has increased [43]. Pan et al. find that the ecological security level of the southern and lower altitude areas in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan is higher, and the ecological security level of the northern and higher-altitude areas is lower [44]. Chen believes that Shangri-La City’s geological hazard-prone areas and dangerous areas are increasing [45]. And many scholars have put forward their own views on tourism planning and development [46,47]. It is not difficult to find that the academic world has paid attention to the significant impact of climate change and urbanisation on ethnic villages in this area.
However, the distribution of villages in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan has been sparsely studied. Do people from different ethnic groups live together in multi-ethnic villages? Or are different ethnic groups living in different villages? Are these villages close to each other? Do different ethnic groups have their own territories? Are villages of different ethnic groups situated in similar environments? What are the main factors affecting the ethnic village distribution of the area? Chen et al. believe that the construction of post stations in the Ming and Qing dynasties had the greatest impact on the distribution of traditional villages [48]. Yang finds that the cultural landscape of villages in northwest Yunnan is dually influenced by the Tibetan-Yi and Han corridors, and their spatial distribution is significantly related to the characteristics of the river basin and prominent differences [49]. Zhang believes that, in Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, topography is an important factor influencing the spatial distribution of villages [50]. He believes that the migration and integration of ethnic groups led to the formation of a mosaic spatial distribution pattern between Tibetans, Lisu, Naxi, and other ethnic groups in the Three Parallel River areas [51]. However, most previous studies have utilised only a few villages as case studies; consequently, there is lack of comparative studies on the spatial distribution of different ethnic groups in the region, quantitative analyses with several samples, and further exploration of the factors influencing village distribution. Therefore, this study chooses ethnic villages in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan as the research object and examines the relationship between the spatial distribution and the natural environment of Tibetan, Lisu, and multi-ethnic villages. Through the analysis of the characteristics of the natural environment, the important factors affecting the spatial distribution of clusters of different ethnic villages are discussed.
The remainder of this paper is organised as follows: First, we use Excel and ArcGIS to analyse the distribution characteristics of the Tibetan, Lisu, and multi-ethnic cohabiting villages. Second, the relevant natural factors affecting the distribution characteristics of the three village types are analysed and compared. Third, the connection between the distribution characteristics of ethnic groups and ethnic culture in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan are discussed.
This paper hopes to reveal the distribution characteristics of villages before large-scale modernisation and relocation. The distribution characteristic is formed by the interaction between man and nature over a long period of history, demonstrating the different ways of adaptability of different ethnic groups to the natural environment. Under the background of climate change, rapid modernisation, and reconciliation among ethnic groups in Northwest Yunnan, this paper provides a scientific basis for poverty alleviation and the relocation of villages, protection of ethnic culture in the core areas, and promotion of equality among ethnic groups in this region.

2. Research Scope and Data Sources

2.1. Study Area

The mountainous region of northwest Yunnan (26°52′ N–29°16′ N, 98°08′ E–100°19′ E) includes Gongshan Dulong Nu Autonomous County, Deqin County, Weixi Lisu Autonomous County, and Shangri-La City in Yunnan Province, China, with a total area of approximately 27,423 km2 (Figure 1). The terrain in the area is sharply cut and the elevation difference is large (>6000 m). The proportion of mountainous area is large, and the vicinity of the river has become an ideal space for many ethnic groups to settle and a transportation space for cultural exchange. The mountainous region of northwest Yunnan is inhabited by ethnic groups such as Tibetans, Lisu, Nu, Naxi, Bai, Yi, Pumi, and Dulong, which have unique ethnic diversity, cultural diversity, and rich historical heritage.

2.2. Data Sources

The data we use in this study can be divided into two main parts: spatial data and ethnic village information. Regarding the spatial data, a map of China has been obtained from the Standard Map Service System [52] of the Map Technology Review Centre of the Ministry of Natural Resources of China. Data on water systems and villages are obtained from the 1:250,000 scale national base geodatabases [53] of the National Catalogue Service for Geographic Information of China. Climate data (2015) [54] and ecosystem data (2015) [55] are obtained from the Resource and Environment Data Cloud Platform of the Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. The Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with 30 m accuracy comes from the Geospatial Data Cloud [56]. Regarding information on ethnic villages, since information on Chinese villages and ethnic groups is not publicly available, this study extracts information such as place names, ethnicities, livelihood strategies, and the population size of ethnic villages from on the local Gazetteer published in the 1980s (Gazetteer of Gongshan Dulong Nu Autonomous County of Yunnan Province, Gazetteer of Deqin County of Yunnan Province, Gazetteer of Weixi Lisu Autonomous County of Yunnan Province, and Gazetteer of Zhongdian County of Yunnan Province) [57,58,59,60] and converts the effective information into geographic information data. The ethnicities of the villages in this paper refer to the ethnicity of all the inhabitants. If the inhabitants of the village are from more than one ethnic group, the village is a multi-ethnic village. A total of 2575 spatial information points of mountainous ethnic villages in northwest Yunnan have been obtained. Among them, there are 825 Tibetan, 707 Lisu, and 743 multi-ethnic villages, accounting for 88.35% of all villages in the study area.

3. Research Methods

3.1. Average Nearest Neighbour Index

The average nearest neighbour index is used to divide the Tibetan, Lisu, and multi-ethnic cohabitation villages in the mountains of northwest Yunnan into clustered, random, or dispersed spatial distribution types based on the spatial proximity of the point elements [61]. The most recent point index is used as the basis for the discriminant, and its formula is as follows:
R = r 1 r E = 2 D
r E = 1 2 n A
where R represents the ratio of the actual distance to the closest theoretical distance, r1 represents the closest actual distance, r E represents the closest theoretical distance, D represents the point density, n represents the total number of research objects, and A represents the study area. When R > 1, spatial points of ethnic villages tend to be dispersed; when R < 1, spatial points of ethnic villages tend to be clustered.

3.2. Kernel Density Analysis

Kernel Density analysis visualises the “hotspot” areas of village point distribution [62]. Nuclear density analysis has been used to compare the spatial density of spatial points of Tibetan, Lisu, and multi-ethnic villages in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan. The kernel density estimation is expressed as follows:
f h x = 1 n ∑ i = 1 n k h ( x − x i ) = 1 n h ∑ i = 1 n k ( x − x i h )
where k( ) represents the Kernel Density equation, x represents the location of the village, xi represents a village with x as its centre, h represents bandwidth (h > 0), n represents the number of points in the bandwidth, and the value of i is 0–1 [27].

3.3. GeoDetector

GeoDetector has been used to analyse the importance of each factor in ethnic villages. It is a quantitative method for measuring Spatial Stratified Heterogeneity (SSH). The core idea is based on the assumption that if an independent variable has a significant influence on a dependent variable, then the spatial distribution of the independent and dependent variables should be similar [63]. The outputs of GeoDetector include four types of information. This study selected Factor detector and Interaction detector to measure the importance of the factors of ethnic villages’ spatial distribution. The importance of factors is measured it by the GeoDetector q values. Its expression is as follows:
q = 1 − ∑ h = 1 L N h σ h 2 N σ 2 = 1 − S S W S S T
where h = 1,2,..., L represents the stratification of Y and X; N h and N represent the number of units in layer h and the whole zone, respectively; σ h 2 and σ 2 represent the variances of layer h and the whole region’s Y values, respectively. SSW and SST represent the sum of the within-layer variances and the total district-wide variance, respectively. The value of q is (0,1); the larger the value, the more obvious the spatial heterogeneity of Y. If the independent variable X is generated hierarchically, the larger the q value, the stronger the explanatory power of the independent variable X to attribute Y, and vice versa [27].

4. Results

4.1. Spatial Distribution Characteristics of Ethnic Villages

4.1.1. Spatial Distribution Types

The Average Nearest Neighbour tool in ArcMap 10.8 software concludes that the spatial distribution has three types: clustered, random, and dispersed. We used this tool to analyse the spatial distribution types of Tibetan, Lisu, and multi-ethnic villages in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan. The nearest neighbour index R < 1 is obtained for all three types of ethnic villages. The results indicate that the spatial distribution of each ethnicity of villages is clustered (Figure 2). In addition, Z < 0 indicates that the probability of random generation in this study is less than 1%.

4.1.2. Spatial Distribution Density and Patterns

We use the Kernel Density analysis tool in ArcMap 10.8 software to analyse the spatial distribution of ethnic villages in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan. And the search radius we use in this study is 10 km. The results show significant differences in the spatial distribution characteristics of villages with different ethnicities (Figure 3). The core density areas of Tibetan villages are Shangri-La City and Xiaozhongdian Township. The secondary areas are the linear area at the junction of Deqin County and Shangri-La City, and the dotted area in the western part of Deqin County. The former is the linear area along the main stream of the Jinsha River, and the latter is the linear area along the main stream of the Lancang River.
The core density area of Lisu villages is located in the western part of Weixi County. It is banded. This area is located along the main stream of the Lancang River. The secondary area is the southwestern linear area of Gongshan County, which is along the main stream of the Nu River.
The spatial distribution of multi-ethnic villages is relatively scattered, mostly gathered in strips. The high-density areas are mainly in the south-central part of Weixi County, with the urban area of Weixi County at the core. The secondary area is the western strip of Gongshan County.

4.2. Relationship between the Spatial Distribution of Ethnic Villages in the Mountainous Region of Northwest Yunnan and the Natural Environment

The location points of ethnic villages in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan are superimposed on raster maps of each natural factor, and the distribution of village location points under the condition of a single natural factor is calculated (Figure 4 and Figure 5). In Figure 4, the red dots represent the coordinates of Tibetan villages, the blue dots represent the coordinates of Lisu villages, and the yellow dots represent the coordinates of multi-ethnic villages. This assists in understanding the reasons for the formation of regions with different distribution densities and the implicit patterns between natural factors and spatial distributions.

4.2.1. The Relationship between the Spatial Distribution of Ethnic Villages and Topography

DEM data are used to generate elevation, slope, and aspect maps of the study area. Information on the map is extracted to village location points. We exported the information into a CVS (comma-separated values) file and imported the file into Excel for statistical analyses.
(1) Relationship between Spatial Distribution of Ethnic Villages and Elevation
In ArcGIS, the natural breaks method (Jenks) is used to divide the elevation data (30 m digital elevation model) of the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan into five elevation intervals: 60–2452 m, 2452–3074 m, 3074–3622 m, 3622–4177 m, and 4177–6704 m. A superimposed analysis of Tibetan, Lisu, and multi-ethnic village data with elevation data shows that the number of villages in the three types varies significantly at different elevation intervals. Most Tibetan villages are distributed in the 2452–3074 m and 3074–3622 m range, accounting for 36% and 35% of all Tibetan villages, respectively. Tibetan villages decreased in the 3622–4177 m elevation range, with only eight villages, accounting for 1%. Most Lisu villages are distributed in the 60–2452 m range, accounting for 61% of the Lisu villages in the study area. No Lisu village is located in the 3622–4177 m range. Most multi-ethnic villages are located in the 60–2452 m range, accounting for 71% of the multi-ethnic villages in the study area.
By comparing the three village types, it is found that the average elevation of Tibetan villages is relatively high at 2770 m, followed by that of the Lisu ethnic group at 2321 m, and that of the multi-ethnic cohabitation villages is the lowest, at 2223 m. As shown in Figure 4, the Lisu and multi-ethnic villages are predominantly distributed at the bottom of the Nu, Lancang, and Jinsha River valleys. Tibetan villages are located at the bottom of these three rivers and on the plateau, east of the study area.
(2) Relationship between Spatial Distribution of Ethnic Villages and Slope of Ethnic Villages
According to the requirements of the vertical planning specifications for urban and rural construction land in China, the slope of the study area is divided into four grades: 0–5°, 5–15°, 15–25°, and >25°. Among them, Tibetan villages are more distributed in the slopes of 5–15° and 15–25°, accounting for 38% and 30% of Tibetan villages, respectively. Lisu villages are mostly distributed on slopes of 15–25° and >25°, accounting for 44% and 36% of the Lisu villages, respectively. Multi-ethnic villages are mainly located in the slope range of 5–15° and 15–25°, accounting for 36% and 38% of the multi-ethnic villages, respectively. By comparing the distribution of the three villages, it is found that there are far more Tibetan villages distributed in the gentle slope (0–5°) range than the other two ethnic village types. The number of Lisu villages on steep slopes (>25°) is significantly higher than the other two village types.
The average slopes of the three types of villages are 16° for Tibetan villages, 22° for Lisu villages, and 18° for multi-ethnic villages. Figure 4b shows that many Tibetan villages are concentrated in the light-grey area with a gentle slope in the eastern part of the study area.

4.2.2. Relationship between the Spatial Distribution of Ethnic Villages and River Buffer Zone

This study utilises ArcGIS 10.8 for river buffer analysis. By superimposing the distribution points of ethnic villages with river buffer zones, the results show that Tibetan and multi-ethnic villages are in close proximity to rivers. Accordingly, 57% of Tibetan villages and 52% of multi-ethnic villages are within a river buffer zone of 0–1000 m. In contrast, only 29% of Lisu villages are in river buffer zones ranging from 0–1000 m. Lisu settlements are predominantly distributed in the river buffer zone of 1000–2000 m, accounting for 39% of the Lisu villages in the study area. In the > 3000 m range, the number of Lisu villages is much larger than that of the other two ethnic village types.

4.2.3. Relationship between the Spatial Distribution of Ethnic Villages and Climate

(1) Relationship between the Spatial Distribution of Ethnic Villages and Average Annual Temperature
Temperature has an important influence on crop growth and, consequently, on the regional distribution of villages. In this study, the average annual temperature in 2015 is used to measure the temperature of the locations of ethnic villages. The natural breaks method is used to divide the average annual temperature in the study area into five intervals: −9.3–2.4 °C, 2.4–5.2 °C, 5.2–8.1 °C, 8.1–11.5 °C, and 11.5–17.9 °C. The results of the interaction analysis show that the average annual temperature of Tibetan villages is low. A total of 38% and 35% of Tibetan villages are distributed in the 5.2–8.1 °C and 2.4–5.2 °C range, respectively. No Lisu villages are distributed in the average annual temperature range of 2.4–5.2 °C. More than half of the Lisu villages (64%) and multi-ethnic villages (73%) are located in the average annual temperature range of 11.5–17.9 °C (Figure 5). Calculating the average temperature of villages of different ethnic village types, we found that the average temperature of Tibetan villages is 9.6 °C, that of Lisu villages is 12.4 °C, and that of multi-ethnic villages is 12.8 °C. The average temperature in the Tibetan villages is significantly lower than that in the other two villages.
(2) Relationship between the Spatial Distribution of Ethnic Villages and Annual Precipitation
Annual precipitation has a significant impact on villages’ agricultural development. In ArcGIS 10.8, the natural breaks method is used to classify the precipitation of the year 2015 in the study area: 292–455 mm, 455–580 mm, 580–736 mm, 736–901 mm, and 901–1155 mm. The results shows that 72% of Tibetan settlements are distributed in the 292–455 mm annual precipitation range, 26% are distributed in the 255–580 mm range, and no Tibetan settlements are distributed in the 736–901 mm annual precipitation range. Most (59%) of the Lisu villages are found in areas with a precipitation of 580–736 mm, and very few (1%) are found in areas with an annual precipitation of 292–455 mm. Multi-ethnic villages are predominantly distributed in the 580–736 mm and 455–580 mm (48% and 29%, respectively) ranges. The annual precipitation of different ethnic village types is found to be 517 mm in Tibetan, 828 mm in Lisu, and 737 mm in multi-ethnic groups. Tibetan villages are concentrated in areas with low annual precipitation, which significantly differed from Lisu and multi-ethnic villages.

4.2.4. Relationship between the Spatial Distribution of Ethnic Villages and Ecosystem

The ecosystem within villages is the result of a combination of humans and nature. Different ethnic groups choose different ecosystems to live in. Thus, they choose different rural livelihoods. In mountainous regions in China, the area of most natural villages is less than 1 square kilometre, so the ecosystem data we use are raster data with an accuracy of 1 square kilometre. According to Xu Xinliang’s 2015 spatial distribution data of ecosystem types in China [55], the study area contains seven types of ecosystems: cropland, forest, grassland, fresh water, deserts, human, and others.
The ecosystem types for the villages are extracted using ArcGIS 10.8 Statistical Analysis. The results show that the numbers of villages distributed in forests, grasslands, and agricultural ecosystems are relatively large. The proportions of Tibetan villages distributed in forests, grasslands, and cropland ecosystems are 34%, 32%, and 30%, respectively. However, Lisu villages are predominantly distributed in forest ecosystems, accounting for 58% of the total. Multi-ethnic villages are predominantly distributed in forest and cropland ecosystems, accounting for 44% and 27% of the total, respectively.

4.3. Quantification of the Influence of Natural Factors

We use GeoDetector to measure the relationship of natural factors and the spatial distribution of villages with different ethnicities. We utilise factor detector results to measure the impact of each factor and utilise interaction detector results to test whether the two natural factors have an interactive relationship on the spatial distribution of the ethnic villages of the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan. Based on previous studies, the Kernel Density of the spatial distribution of the villages is selected as the dependent variable, and natural factors including elevation, slope, river buffer zone, annual average temperature, annual precipitation, and ecosystem are selected as independent variables.
The factor testing results (Table 1, Figure 6) indicated that the effects of various factors on different ethnic villages differed. The distribution of Tibetan villages in the natural environment is ecosystem > annual average temperature > annual precipitation > elevation > slope > river buffer zone. The distribution of Lisu villages is annual precipitation > elevation > annual average temperature > river buffer zone > ecosystem > slope. The distribution of the multi-ethnic villages is annual precipitation > average annual temperature > elevation > slope > ecosystem > river buffer zone.
There are five intervals for the impact factor interaction: nonlinear weakening, one-factor nonlinear weakening, two-factor enhancement, independent reinforcement, and nonlinear enhancement. Considering the interaction between the impact factors of the distribution of the three ethnic village types (Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4), we find that the impact factors are a two-factor enhancement or nonlinear enhancement. This suggests that the interactions between these factors can better explain the distribution of ethnic villages than single factors.
The results of the natural factor interaction detection in Tibetan villages are presented in Table 2. There is a two-factor enhancement between the elevation and average annual temperature factors. The other factors exhibit nonlinear enhancements. Among these, the ecosystem and annual precipitation are the most significant composite factors with values of 0.201. The composite factor of the ecosystem and the average annual temperature are also significant at 0.200.
The results of natural factor interaction detection in Lisu villages are presented in Table 3. A two-factor enhancement is evident between the elevation and annual average temperature factors, elevation and annual precipitation factors, slope and annual precipitation factors, river buffer zone and annual precipitation factors, annual average temperature and annual precipitation factors, and annual precipitation and ecosystem factors. The remaining factors exhibit nonlinear enhancements. Among these, annual precipitation and elevation are the most significant composite factors, with values of 0.537, followed by the composite factors of the annual precipitation and average annual temperature, which is significant at 0.501.
The results of the natural factor interaction detection in multi-ethnic villages are presented in Table 4. A two-factor enhancement is notable between the elevation and annual average temperature factors, the elevation and annual precipitation factors, and the annual average temperature and annual precipitation factors. The remaining factors exhibit nonlinear enhancements. The interaction between annual precipitation and annual average temperature is the most significant at 0.513. This is followed by the composite factor between annual precipitation and elevation, and annual precipitation and slope at 0.506.

5. Discussion

According to studies on anthropology, the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan is one of the areas of early human activity and an important area for human migration in prehistoric and historical periods [64]. The continuous conflict, exchange, and integration of migrating ethnic and indigenous groups, adapting to and transforming the environment, have formed the distribution pattern of today’s mountainous ethnic villages in northwest Yunnan.

5.1. Spatial Distribution Characteristics

The spatial distribution of Tibetan, Lisu, and multi-ethnic villages in the mountains of northwest Yunnan shows agglomeration characteristics. Additionally, the spatial distribution characteristics of ethnic villages differ. The spatial distribution of Tibetan villages shows the characteristics of ‘single oval shaped cluster, supplemented with multiple linear clusters’. The core density zone is located in Shangri-La City. This area is relatively flat and open in a mountainous region which provides abundant land for humans to build houses and fields. And the forests and grasslands are better protected, which provides the ideal environment for pasturing. The spatial distribution of Lisu villages shows the characteristics of a band distribution. The core density area is located in Weixi County, along the main stream of the Lancang River. The area along the main stream of the Lancang River is mountainous and is rich with natural resources and a great diversity of wildlife and ecosystems. The linear spatial distribution characteristics of the multi-ethnic villages are remarkable. The core area is distributed along the Yongchun River, a first-class tributary of the Lancang River. The banks of the Yongchun River have relatively small undulations compared to the main stream of the Lancang River, providing better agricultural production land and transportation routes.

5.2. Relationship between the Spatial Distribution of Ethnic Villages, the Natural Environment, and the History of Ethnic Groups

Based on the analysis of village distribution and the interaction relationship of various natural environmental factors, the distribution of Tibetan, Lisu, and multi-ethnic villages in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan shows significant differences. The number of villages at high elevations is Tibetan > Lisu > multi-ethnic groups. The distribution slopes of villages are generally Lisu > multi-ethnic > Tibetan. Rivers have long been considered important factors in determining the locations of human settlements. Rivers are reliable sources of water and are natural defence barriers for villages [30]. The distribution of Tibetan and multi-ethnic villages is in proximity to rivers.
In multi-ethnic areas, the natural environments of different ethnic villages show significant differences, which are also reflected in the Min River Basin [65]. This phenomenon is related to the historical land competition between ethnic groups. In general, in an ideal state, humans tend to seek to settle in places with low elevations, flat lands, close to rivers, and warm and humid climate. These areas are suitable for agricultural development and village construction. However, historically in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan, Tibetans with dominant power have chosen areas with high elevations, low temperatures, and little precipitation to settle, contrary to common sense. Traditional ethnological research holds that since the Tang Dynasty, the Tibetan-dominated Tubo and Naxi-dominated Nanzhao have fought intermittent wars for hundreds of years in the mountainous regions of northwest Yunnan [66]. The years of war led to the southward migration of Tibetans. The Lisu people moved west to escape oppression and war [67]. Soldiers and civilians with various ethnicities, brought there by the war, settled in the valleys of the main streams of the Lancang and Jinsha Rivers, forming numerous multi-ethnic villages [68]. To a certain extent, this also explains the phenomenon that in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan, Tibetan villages are concentrated in the northern part of the study area, Lisu villages are concentrated in the central and western parts of the study area, and multi-ethnic villages are concentrated in the southern part of the study area.

5.3. Relationship between Spatial Distribution of Ethnic Villages and Livelihood Strategies

Tibetan villages in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan are distributed in areas with low annual average temperatures and annual precipitation, which significantly differed from the climate distribution of the other two types of villages. Regarding the relationship with ecosystems, ethnic villages in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan are predominantly distributed in forests, grasslands, and cropland ecosystems. The proportion of Tibetan villages in grassland ecosystems is significantly higher than that in other types of ethnic villages.
The spatial distribution of ethnic villages in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan differs from the livelihood strategies of ethnic groups. Tibetans in this region have traditionally relied on semi-farming and semi-pastoral livelihood strategies, and village sites are often located close to pastures. Yaks and pigs are the main animals raised by the Tibetan people. Meng et al. find that the lower elevation of yak distribution in the area south of 31° north and latitude is approximately 3000 m [69]. In addition, Tibetans are more adaptable to high-elevation and low-oxygen environments than other ethnic groups [70]. Historically, the Lisu have primarily lived in forests as hunters and gatherers [71]. Many multi-ethnic villages are formed by frequent exchanges between ethnic groups, and most are located in convenient transportation areas. In the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan, commercial and trade exchanges are important for the formation of multi-ethnic villages [72]. Most of these immigrants settled at the bottom of river valleys and on major transportation routes, choosing mining, commerce, and handicrafts as their livelihood strategies.

5.4. The Relationship between Natural Environmental Factors and Ethnic Differentiation

Quantifying the interaction relationship of various natural environmental factors and village distribution revealed that the ecosystem is the most significant factor affecting the distribution of Tibetan villages. Annual precipitation is the most significant factor affecting the distribution of Lisu and other multi-ethnic villages. This conclusion contradicts the general view that topographical and geomorphological factors are the most important factors influencing villages in mountainous regions. Further research indicates that the spatial distribution characteristics of different ethnic villages result from the interaction of multiple natural environmental factors.
Annual precipitation has a significant impact on all ethnic villages. Climate diversity is associated with ethnic divisions [5]. Chinese geography has always regarded the dividing line of China’s 400 mm annual precipitation as the dividing line between sustained agriculture and pastoral nomadism [73]. Influenced by the natural environment, particularly climate, livelihood strategies, architectural forms, beliefs, and rituals have diverged, leading to ethnic division and changes in ethnic identity. In the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan, many immigrants have gradually identified themselves with Tibetan culture after living at high elevations for extended periods and converted to Tibetan Buddhism [68].

6. Conclusions and Future Work

ArcMap and GeoDetector are used to study the spatial distribution, the relationship with the natural environment, the importance of natural factors, and the interaction of various factors of ethnic villages in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan. The conclusions are as follows:
(1) All ethnic villages in the study area are clustered. The concentrated areas of Tibetan, Lisu, and multi-ethnic villages differ. The main gathering area for Tibetan villages is the Shangri-La Terrace, which has an oval-shaped cluster. The Lisu ethnic group is concentrated in the Lancang River Basin in the southern part of the study area and is in a linear cluster. The concentration of multi-ethnic villages is relatively low. The clusters are mainly in the southern part of the study area along the Nu and Lancang River basins and is linear.
(2) The spatial distribution characteristics of the three types of villages differ in topography, rivers, climate, and ecosystems. The average elevation of Tibetan villages is relatively high at 2770 m above sea level, followed by the Lisu ethnic group at 2321 m, and the multi-ethnic cohabitation village at 2223 m. The average slope of the Tibetan, Lisu, and multi-ethnic villages is 16°, 22°, and 18°, respectively. Tibetan villages and multi-ethnic villages are predominantly located in proximity to rivers. More than half of these two types of villages are located in river buffer zones ranging from 0 to 1000 m. Most Tibetan villages are in low-temperature areas with low annual precipitation. The proportion of Tibetan villages distributed in the forest, grassland, and cropland ecosystems is 34%, 32%, and 30%, respectively. In contrast, 58% of Lisu villages are in forest ecosystems. Multi-ethnic villages are mainly distributed in forest and cropland ecosystems, accounting for 44% and 27%, respectively.
(3) The ecosystem is the most important factor affecting the distribution of Tibetan villages, while annual precipitation is the most important factor affecting the distribution of Lisu and multi-ethnic villages. The factor interaction analysis shows that the most significant natural factors affecting the distribution of Tibetan villages are the composite factors of ecosystems and precipitation. The most significant natural factors affecting the distribution of Lisu villages are the composite factors of precipitation and elevation. The most significant natural factors affecting the distribution of multi-ethnic villages are the composite factors of precipitation and temperature.
The novelty of this study, we think, is that we used a large sample data analysis that overturns the local knowledge that strength determines the distribution of villages. In the academic world, it is generally accepted that the natural environment has an impact on the distribution of villages. However, in this paper, we used the GeoDetector analysis to discover that annual precipitation and ecosystem are important factors affecting the distribution of different ethnic groups in this area. In other mountainous areas of the world, people can also use our analysis to discover the distribution characteristics of different ethnic villages. These findings may help identify the environmental characteristics of different ethnic groups, discuss the issue of natural–cultural heritage in the context of urbanisation, and address more attention to vulnerable ethnic groups in the context of climate change.
This study has some limitations. The scope of research is small in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan, China, and may not be very valuable for regional or global research Moreover, the information on village ethnicity in this study comes from the 1980s; consequently, it may differ from the current situation, which may have led to bias in the study results. In addition, this study does not consider the socio-economic factors affecting the distribution of villages. Future studies should consider combining socio-economic information with the historical culture of ethnic villages to further explore the distribution characteristics, development processes, and reasons behind the distribution of ethnic villages in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan.

Author Contributions

All authors contributed to the study conception and design. The first draft of the manuscript is written by S.L. and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work is funded by the National Key Technology Research and Development Program of the Ministry of Science and Technology of China (Grant No. 2016YFC0502104-03).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data will be available from the corresponding author upon a reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Location and topography of the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan, China.
Figure 1. Location and topography of the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan, China.
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Figure 2. Average Nearest Neighbour index diagram of ethnic villages: (a) Tibetan villages’ spatial distribution, (b) Lisu villages’ spatial distribution, (c) multi-ethnic villages’ spatial distribution.
Figure 2. Average Nearest Neighbour index diagram of ethnic villages: (a) Tibetan villages’ spatial distribution, (b) Lisu villages’ spatial distribution, (c) multi-ethnic villages’ spatial distribution.
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Figure 3. Kernel Density of ethnic villages in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan: (a) Tibetan villages’ density, (b) Lisu villages’ density, (c), multi-ethnic villages’ density.
Figure 3. Kernel Density of ethnic villages in the mountainous region of northwest Yunnan: (a) Tibetan villages’ density, (b) Lisu villages’ density, (c), multi-ethnic villages’ density.
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Figure 4. Natural factors of village distribution: (a) elevation; (b) slope; (c) river buffer zone; (d) average annual temperature; (e) annual precipitation; (f) ecosystems.
Figure 4. Natural factors of village distribution: (a) elevation; (b) slope; (c) river buffer zone; (d) average annual temperature; (e) annual precipitation; (f) ecosystems.
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Figure 5. Summary of data of the natural factors of village location points.
Figure 5. Summary of data of the natural factors of village location points.
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Figure 6. Factor detector results for the spatial distribution of ethnic villages.
Figure 6. Factor detector results for the spatial distribution of ethnic villages.
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Table 1. Factor detector results for the spatial distribution of ethnic villages.
Table 1. Factor detector results for the spatial distribution of ethnic villages.
q StatisticElevationSlopeRiver Buffer ZoneAverage Annual TemperatureAnnual PrecipitationEcosystem
Tibetan villages0.0550.0470.0110.0690.0640.102
Lisu villages0.1020.0850.0220.0860.4590.012
Multi-ethnic villages0.1100.0110.0050.1400.4830.009
Table 2. Interaction detector results for the spatial distribution of Tibetan villages.
Table 2. Interaction detector results for the spatial distribution of Tibetan villages.
Natural Environmental FactorsElevationSlopeRiver Buffer ZoneAverage Annual TemperatureAnnual PrecipitationEcosystem
Elevation0.055
Slope0.1480.047
River buffer zone0.1140.0800.011
Average annual temperature0.1220.1430.1370.069
Annual precipitation0.1620.1600.0940.1840.064
Ecosystem0.1920.1770.1340.2000.2010.102
Table 3. Interaction detector results for the spatial distribution of Lisu villages.
Table 3. Interaction detector results for the spatial distribution of Lisu villages.
Natural Environmental FactorsElevationSlopeRiver Buffer ZoneAverage Annual TemperatureAnnual PrecipitationEcosystem
Elevation0.102
Slope0.2240.085
River buffer zone0.1340.1230.022
Average annual temperature0.1220.1970.1120.086
Annual precipitation0.5370.4860.4800.5010.459
Ecosystem0.1240.1030.0490.1120.4710.012
Table 4. Interaction detector results for the spatial distribution of multi-ethnic villages.
Table 4. Interaction detector results for the spatial distribution of multi-ethnic villages.
Natural Environmental FactorsElevationSlopeRiver Buffer ZoneAverage Annual TemperatureAnnual PrecipitationEcosystem
Elevation0.110
Slope0.1280.011
River buffer zone0.1390.0270.005
Average annual temperature0.1670.1590.1690.140
Annual precipitation0.5060.5060.4930.5130.483
Ecosystem0.1230.0350.0410.1590.4980.009
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Liu, S.; Li, X.; Lin, Q.; Qiu, J. Spatial Distribution of Ethnic Villages in the Mountainous Region of Northwest Yunnan and Their Relationship with Natural Factors. Sustainability 2023, 15, 12307. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151612307

AMA Style

Liu S, Li X, Lin Q, Qiu J. Spatial Distribution of Ethnic Villages in the Mountainous Region of Northwest Yunnan and Their Relationship with Natural Factors. Sustainability. 2023; 15(16):12307. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151612307

Chicago/Turabian Style

Liu, Shan, Xuhua Li, Qing Lin, and Jiang Qiu. 2023. "Spatial Distribution of Ethnic Villages in the Mountainous Region of Northwest Yunnan and Their Relationship with Natural Factors" Sustainability 15, no. 16: 12307. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151612307

APA Style

Liu, S., Li, X., Lin, Q., & Qiu, J. (2023). Spatial Distribution of Ethnic Villages in the Mountainous Region of Northwest Yunnan and Their Relationship with Natural Factors. Sustainability, 15(16), 12307. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151612307

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