Steel Slag and Recycled Concrete Aggregates: Replacing Quarries to Supply Sustainable Materials for the Asphalt Paving Industry
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Steel Slag Aggregates Applications in the Asphalt Paving Industry
2.1. Steel Slag Properties and Their Application in Road Pavements
2.1.1. Steel Slag Types and Main Properties
2.1.2. Characteristics of Steel Slag Aggregates Relevant for Road Pavements
2.2. Legislation on the Use of Steel Slag
- (a)
- further use of SSA is certain;
- (b)
- SSA can be used directly without any further processing other than regular industrial practice;
- (c)
- SSA is produced as an integral part of a production process; and
- (d)
- further use of SSA is lawful, fulfilling all the requirements for its specific use without causing adverse environmental or human health impacts.
2.3. Environmental Evaluation of Steel Slag Aggregates
2.4. Case Studies of Steel Slag Aggregate Incorporation in Asphalt Mixtures or Road Pavements
2.4.1. Incorporation of Steel Slag Aggregate in Conventional HMA
2.4.2. Incorporation of Steel Slag Aggregate in WMA Mixtures
2.4.3. Evaluation of Different Incorporation Ratios of Steel Slag Aggregate
2.4.4. Combined Use of Steel Slag Aggregate with Other Waste or By-Products
2.4.5. Incorporation of Steel Slag Aggregate in Other Types of Asphalt Mixtures
3. Recycled Concrete Aggregates Applications in the Asphalt Paving Industry
3.1. Characteristics of Construction and Demolition Waste
- A heterogeneous constitution with fractions of several size gradings and levels of hazard;
- Scattered origins in terms of geography;
- Occasional or temporary production at each place of origin considering the construction works’ temporary nature.
3.2. Properties and Treatments of Recycled Concrete Aggregates Applied in Road Pavements
3.2.1. Properties of Recycled Concrete Aggregates Applied in Road Pavements
3.2.2. Treatments of Recycled Concrete Aggregates for Road Pavement Application
3.3. Legislation on the Use of Recycled Aggregates from CDW
- Improving the identification, separation of the origin, and collection of waste;
- The improvement of waste logistics;
- The advance in waste processing;
- Quality management;
- The appropriate policy and framework conditions.
3.4. Environmental Evaluation of Recycled Concrete Aggregates from CDW
- The aggregates production and transportation to the asphalt plant;
- The production at the asphalt plant;
- The asphalt mixture transportation to the construction site;
- The pavement construction.
3.5. Case studies of Recycled Concrete Aggregates Incorporation in Asphalt Mixtures or Road Pavements
3.5.1. Incorporation of Recycled Concrete Aggregate in Conventional HMA
- CDW is an essential source of waste in the EU and can be reused or recycled;
- Directive 2008/98/EC, from 2008, amended by Directive (UE) 2018/851, already indicated a target of 70% for the reuse of these materials by 2020;
- Recycling and reusing CDW saves natural resources and energy and can be cheaper than natural aggregates.
3.5.2. Incorporation of Recycled Concrete Aggregate in WMA Mixtures
3.5.3. Evaluation of Different Incorporation Ratios of Recycled Concrete Aggregate
3.5.4. Combined Use of Recycled Concrete Aggregate with Other Waste or By-Products
3.5.5. Incorporation of Recycled Concrete Aggregate in Other Types of Asphalt Mixtures
3.6. Case Studies of SSA and RCA Simultaneous Incorporation in Asphalt Mixtures
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
BF | Iron-making slag of Blast Furnace |
BOF | Basic Oxygen Furnace |
CDW | Construction Demolition Waste |
CR | Crumb Rubber |
CRMB | Crumb Rubber Modified Binder |
DBM | Dense asphalt macadam |
EAF | Slag and Electric Arc Furnace |
EAM | Emulsified Asphalt Mixtures |
EWC | European Waste Catalogue |
FAM | Foamed Asphalt Mixtures |
HMA | Hot Mix Asphalt |
ITS | Indirect Tensile Strength |
LD | Ladle Furnace |
LCA | Life Cycle Assessment |
LoW | List of Waste |
NA | Natural Aggregates |
OBC | Optimum Binder Content |
PA | Porous Asphalt |
PSV | Polishing Stone Value |
RAP | Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement |
RCA | Recycled Concrete Aggregate |
SDA | Semi-Dense Asphalt mixtures |
SEM | Scanning Electron Microscope |
SMA | Stone Mastic Asphalt |
SSA | Steel Slag Aggregate |
VMA | Voids in Mineral Aggregate |
WFD | Waste Framework Directive |
WMA | Warm Mix Asphalt |
ITSR | Wet/dry Indirect Tensile Strength Ratio |
XRD | X-ray diffraction |
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Characteristics | EAF Steel Slags | Granite |
---|---|---|
Bulk density (g/cm3) | 3.4–3.5 | 2.5–2.7 |
Shape—thin and elongated pieces (%) | <10 | <10 |
Impact value (wt.%) | 18 | 12 |
Crushing value (wt.%) | 13 | 17 |
Micro-Deval Coefficient (wt.%) | 10 | 15 |
Polished stone value, PSV (%) | 51–61 | 48–52 |
Water absorption (wt.%) | 0.7–1.3 | 0.5–0.7 |
Resistance to freeze-thaw (wt.%) | <0.5 | <0.5 |
Binder affinity (%) | 50–65 | 10–15 |
Reference | Type of Mixture | Improved Properties with SSA |
---|---|---|
Kavussi and Qazizadeh [59] | HMA | Fatigue cracking resistance |
Maharaj et al. [47] | HMA | Marshall stability and surface characteristics |
Pasetto and Baldo [30] | HMA | Stiffness modulus, fatigue and rutting resistance, and indirect tensile strength |
Abd Alhay and Jassim [28] | HMA | Marshall stability and temperature susceptibility |
Shiha et al. [29] | HMA | Marshall stability and fatigue cracking resistance |
Masoudi et al. [34] | WMA | Marshall stability, stiffness, resilient modulus, and indirect tensile strength |
Ameri et al. [58] | WMA | Marshall stability, tensile strength, resilient modulus, moisture resistance, and rutting resistance |
Ziaee and Behnia [60] | WMA | Indirect tensile strength, resilient modulus, and dynamic creep |
Keymanesh et al. [61] | Microsurfacing | Abrasion resistance, curing time, bleeding, and vertical displacement |
Advantages | Benefits |
---|---|
It prevents the depletion of natural resources | Protection of natural habitats |
Minimizing dependency on raw materials | Minimization of consumption of natural resources Prioritize ready-to-use materials |
Reduction in necessary financial resources | Reduction in energy costs used in the extraction, processing, and transport of natural materials |
Elimination of waste deposits | Minimization of greenhouse gas emissions Reductions in water and air pollution |
Minimization of disposal expenses | Decrease in transport and disposal costs |
Environmental protection | Contribution to climate change mitigation |
Drawbacks | |
Heterogeneity in the CDW composition Difficulties in pre-screening CDWs It may have contamination Uncertainties about the standards to be met Processing and crushing equipment may not be suitable Lack of incentives from some public entities |
Properties | References | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[116] | [109] | [108] | [119] | [117] | [118] | [120] | |
Flakiness index, FI (%) | 3.4 | - | - | 6.0 | - | 4.5 | 34.0 |
Sand equivalent, SE (%) | - | - | 62 | 30 | - | 77 | 67 |
Los Angeles fragmentation, LA (%) | 19 | 28 | - | 43 | - | 38 | 34 |
Micro-Deval abrasion loss, MDE (%) | - | - | - | - | 24 | - | - |
Bulk specific gravity, G (Mg/m3) | 2.52 | 2.28 | 2.50 | 2.30 | 2.30 | 2.64 | 2.63 |
Water absorption, WA24 (%) | 4.8 | 5.8 | 1.0 | 6.1 | 5.9 | 7.0 | 6.1 |
Flat and elongated particles (%) | - | - | - | - | 2.9 | - | - |
Porosity, ϕ (%) | - | - | - | - | 13.6 | - | - |
Treatments | Effects | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Double coating with cement slag paste and “Sika Tite-BE” | Decrease in water absorption and a marked increase in stiffness and moisture resistance | [125] |
Microbial carbonate precipitation | Compressive strength increases (up to 40%), and water absorption decreases (up to 27%) | [126] |
Pre-soaking with hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and sulfuric acid | Increase in the compressive strength | [127] |
Coating with bitumen emulsion (5%) | Improvement in stripping resistance | [128] |
Coating with waste plastic bottles | Reduces water absorption and improves its mechanical behavior | [124] |
Activation by organic silicon resin | Improvement in the dynamic stability of asphalt treated base | [129] |
Curing at 170 °C in the oven | Improvement in moisture resistance | [130] |
Modification by calcium carbonate bio deposition | A decline in water absorption | [131] |
Modification with liquid silicone resin | Improved low-temperature flexibility and higher moisture and rutting resistance | [132] |
Precoating with cement slag paste | Resulting in high pore contents, absorption of water, and asphalt content | [133] |
Calcination process | Transform RCA calcium carbonate into lime | [134] |
Silica fume solution and ultrasonic cleaning | Increase in compressive strength | [135] |
Carbonation and hydrochloric acid | Significantly reduced RCA porosity | [136] |
References | Type of Mixture | %RCA Included | Conclusions |
---|---|---|---|
Paranavithana and Mohajerani [164] | HMA | 100 | Volumetric properties and stability similar to other mixtures |
Lee et al. [133] | HMA | 100 | Satisfactory mechanical performance, including the rutting resistance and moisture sensitivity |
Mills-Beale and You [165] | Asphalt mixtures | 75 | Satisfactory mechanical performance, including the rutting resistance and moisture sensitivity |
Zulkati et al. [166] | HMA | 60 | Satisfactory rutting resistance |
Al-Bayati et al. [117] | HMA | 60 | Above 60%, the requirements for volumetric properties and stability were not met |
Rafi et al. [167] | HMA | 50 | Above 50%, it did not meet the Marshall requirements (stability and flow) |
Zhang et al. [168] | HMA | 50 | Shows a considerable reduction in the flexural tensile strength and the stiffness modulus |
Wong et al. [134] | HMA | 45 | Adequate performance based on creep resistance and stiffness modulus |
Pérez et al. [120] | HMA | 40 | Satisfactory rutting resistance |
Pasandín and Pérez [130] | HMA | 30 | Satisfactory fatigue life and rutting resistance |
Pasandín and Pérez [122] | HMA | 30 | Satisfactory water sensitivity, fatigue life, and rutting resistance |
Dhir et al. [169] | Asphalt mixtures | 30 | Satisfactory stiffness modulus, rutting resistance, and fatigue life |
Qasrawi and Asi [170] | HMA | 25 | Did not meet the requirements for volumetric properties above 25% |
Ossa et al. [99] | Surface HMA | 20 | Above 20% caused moisture damage |
Kowalski et al. [171] | Asphalt mixtures | 15 | Above 15% caused moisture damage |
Aggregate | Advantages | Drawbacks |
---|---|---|
SSA |
|
|
RCA |
|
|
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Loureiro, C.D.A.; Moura, C.F.N.; Rodrigues, M.; Martinho, F.C.G.; Silva, H.M.R.D.; Oliveira, J.R.M. Steel Slag and Recycled Concrete Aggregates: Replacing Quarries to Supply Sustainable Materials for the Asphalt Paving Industry. Sustainability 2022, 14, 5022. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095022
Loureiro CDA, Moura CFN, Rodrigues M, Martinho FCG, Silva HMRD, Oliveira JRM. Steel Slag and Recycled Concrete Aggregates: Replacing Quarries to Supply Sustainable Materials for the Asphalt Paving Industry. Sustainability. 2022; 14(9):5022. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095022
Chicago/Turabian StyleLoureiro, Carlos D. A., Caroline F. N. Moura, Mafalda Rodrigues, Fernando C. G. Martinho, Hugo M. R. D. Silva, and Joel R. M. Oliveira. 2022. "Steel Slag and Recycled Concrete Aggregates: Replacing Quarries to Supply Sustainable Materials for the Asphalt Paving Industry" Sustainability 14, no. 9: 5022. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095022